
GRAMMAR 




OTfOri "I' i ' 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

-•. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



REVISED EDITION. 



Practical Grammar 



English Language. 



/ 

By NOBLE BUTLER. 



\\ 



In language and in literature nothing can save us from ceaseless revolution 
but a frequent recourse to the primitive authorities and the recognized canons 
of highest perfection.— George P. Marsh. 






... w <- + 



LOUISVILLE, KYT - 
JOHN P. MORTON AND COMPANY, 

FUBLISHERS. ■ ' 

T 






Copyright, 1879, by 
JOHN P. MORTON AND COMPANY. 



ELECTROTYPE!) HY ROBERT ROWELL, LOUISVtUE. 



PREFACE. 



About a third of a century has passed since "Butler's Practical 
Grammar" was first published. It was received with the greatest 
favor, and the author is gratified to know that it has kept up its 
reputation. The work contained several new ideas, some of which 
have been generally adopted, others making their way slowly. New 
names, names expressive of their character, were given to the tenses, 
and almost every grammar since published has adopted these names. 
The author has seen it stated that these names had been previously 
given in some work; but he had never seen any such work. At any 
rate the names had not been presented in such a way as to secure the 
adoption of them. 

Before the publication of this work grammarians were puzzling 
themselves about such expressions as "To become a grammarian 
requires study," "I have heard of his being a good scholar." The 
subject was explained by showing that infinitives are modified in the 
same way that finite verbs are modified, and that when finite verbs are 
followed by the nominative the infinitive is followed by the nomina- 
tive, the same principle applying to participles and participial nouns, 
or gerunds. (See p. 181 of this edition.) 

One of the new ideas advanced was about the nature of the " com- 
pound relative" what. The common misconception of the character 
of this word seems most strange. If the word has no antecedent ex- 
pressed or understood, it is not a relative according to the definitions 
given by those who call it "compound" or "double." If what is 
nothing but an equivalent for the thing which, to call it an antecedent 
would be as correct as to call it a relative. Indeed the name antecedent 
would be more appropriate than the name relative; for, as without a 
noun there would be no adjective, so without an antecedent there would 
be no relative, a relative proposition being of the nature of an adjective. 
In "Webster's Dictionary compound is thus defined : " Composed of ele- 
ments, ingredients, or parts, as, a compound word;" and this definition 
is illustrated by a quotation from "Watts, "Compound substances are 
made up of two or more simple substances." In the same work what 
is called a " compound relative." Of what " elements, ingredients, or 
parts " is what composed ? It is as simple a word as it. (See p. 53.) 
Since writing the note at the foot of page 54 the author has met with a 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

late work by the Rev. Richard Morris, LL. D., President of the Philo- 
logical Society, London, author of "Historical Outlines of English 
Accidence" and other philological works of great reputation. In this 
work Dr. Morris says, " What is used when the antecedent is omitted. 
... Do not call what a compound pronoun." Dr. M. seems to have 
come to the new idea gradually.* 

The doctrine advanced in this work that the verb is always the 
grammatical predicate, the verb be taking its place with other verba, 
was opposed to the teachings of all the logicians and grammarians, and 
it was used as an objection to the book. Carlyle says, " It is singular 
how long the rotten will hold together, provided you do not handle it 
roughly." It is also singular how long a false doctrine will hold its 
place, provided no one disputes it. But the true doctrine is beginning 
to assert itself. Since writing the note beginning page 147 the author 
has observed a note that he had overlooked in the "English Grammar 
by C. P. Mason, Fellow of University College, London." In this note 
the true doctrine is asserted. Mr. Mason maintains that when wi 
" The earth is a globe," what we assert about the earth is not a globe, but 
being a globe, a truth that will be evident to every one who will exercise 
common sense, which is supposed to be given to every human being, 
though in some the quantity may be like the sides of a circle, "infinitely 
email." 

In this grammar the subject is much simplified by representing 
pronouns as being simply nouns, denoting objects and not standing 
for words, having their own meaning just as other nouns have their 
own meaning, and parsed just as other nouns are parsed. (See note, 
p. 48, and " Examples for Parsing," p. 58.) 

Dr. Webster has led many grammarians astray by teaching that 
mine, thine, his, ours, yours, hers and theirs are not in the poss> 
case, but in the nominative or the objective, and that they represent both 
the possessor and the thing possessed. One writer goes so far that he 
makes hers of the neuter gender when the name of the thii 
is neuter.t Webster's doctrine is now abandoned in Webster's Diction- 

* In " Butler's Practical and Critical Grammar " there is a note on the pr< moon 
one, in which the suggestion is made that one is not derived from the French on, 
and that on itself is not derived from the Latin homo, man, but from the numeral 
un, one. For this suggestion the author has been taken to task by some philolo- 
gists, lie is gratified to find himself supported by so eminent a philologist as 
Dr. Morris, who says, " The indefinite one, as in one says, is sometimes, but wrongly, 
derived from the French on, Lat. homo. It is merely the use of the numeral 
for the older man, men, or me."— Historical Outlines, p". 113. 

t" 'That book is hers, not yours.' First method. Hers is a pronoun : (why?) 
possessive; it represents both the possessor and the thing possessed ; its onto 
is book; neuter gender, third person, singular number, to agree with it* ai 
dent." — Harvey's Eng. Grammar, p.56. Here the feminine pari of hen La entirely 
ignored. If hers stands for her book, it should be said t<> be <>t the feminine-neuter 
gender and possessive-nominative case. 



PEEFACE. O 

ary : " Of the two forms of the possessive, your and yours, the first is 
used when attributive and followed by the noun to which it belongs ; 
as, your hand, your book; the second when attributive, but having the 
noun understood; as, my hand and yours; and also when predicative; 
as, this hat is yours." 

Many difficulties have been removed by regarding noun-propositions 
as units construed like nouns. Those who examine the subject will be 
surprised at the light thrown by this simple idea upon many construc- 
tions considered difficult. For instance, notwithstanding, which in other 
grammars is regarded as sometimes a preposition and sometimes a con- 
junction, is shown to be two words, the adverb not and the participle 
tvithstanding, the participle being sometimes used with a noun and 
sometimes with a noun-proposition; as, "Notwithstanding his losses 
(his losses not withstanding, not preventing), he is rich;" "Notwith- 
standing that he has had losses (that he has had losses not withstanding), 
he is rich." The noun-proposition that he has had losses is used as a 
noun in the nominative absolute with the participle withstanding. (See 
pp. 125, 184, 185. For that see p. 238.) Many other constructions are 
explained in a similar way. A noun-proposition may be used as the 
subject of a verb, the predicate-nominative, the object of a transitive 
verb, the object of a preposition, a noun in apposition, or a noun in the 
nominative absolute; as, 

"That he is of age is known;" 

"The truth is that he is of age;" 

"I know that he is of age;" 

"He can not do so before that he is of age;" 

"The truth that he is of age;" 

"That he is of age being known." 
Many constructions regarded as difficult are easily explained by 
taking but, "bout in early English and modern northern English,"* as 
a contraction of be out. (See p. 127 t and Kule I, Remark 6.) From 
regarding but as a preposition some have condemned such classical 
expressions as "none but he." (See note, p. 178.) It is impossible for 

*E. A. Abbott, D. D., head master of the City of London School. Shakespearian 
Grammar, p. 81. Dr. Abbott, illustrating the use of but, quotes the two following 
passages: "It was full of scorpyones and cocadrilles out takene in the foresaid 
monethes," "All that y have y grant the, out take my wife," and says, "The two 
latter passages illustrate the difficulty of determining whether but is used as a 
passive participle with nominative absolute or as an active participle with the 
objective case." It seems clear that take in the latter passage is in the imperative 
mood — "All that I have I grant thee, take thou out my wife [from the number of 
things I grant thee]." 

fMrs. Hemans is represented, p. 127, as having written "whence all hut him 
had fled;" but on looking at the passage as it is in her works we find that she 
wrote "all but he." Some one that did not understand the construction with but 
"corrected" the passage. 



6 PREFACE. 

any one that regards but and that as conjunctions to explain such a 
passage as this: "But that he is so truthful, I could not believe the 
story." The explanation is easy when we take the noun -proposition 
that he is so truthful as the subject of be — be out that be is so truthful, 
that he is so truthful be out. 

Shall and will and should and would are treated in such a way thai 
those who attend to the cautions need never use will for shall or would 
for should. 

The author has endeavored to make each definition clear and 
accurate, expressing exactly the intended idea, not merely something 
approaching it more or less nearly. "What are given in some works as 
definitions are often so loose that they are no definitions. "A verb is a 
word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer " is a definition of the infin- 
itive mood, and a very poor definition of that. "A verb is a word which 
expresses being, action, or state" does not distinguish verbs from ab- 
stract nouns. Existence expresses being; destruction expresses action; 
happiness expresses state. The very thing that constitutes the verb is 
disregarded. "A transitive verb requires an object to complete its mean- 
ing; as, 'The hunter killed a bear.' " The object does not complete the 
meaning of the verb, for the verb expresses its own meaning completely. 
"The hunter killed." The verb killed does not require an object to 
complete its meaning; we know from the verb that something has been 
deprived of life, and the addition of bear to the sentence is no addition 
to the meaning of killed. Besides, if this definition were correct, it 
would apply to the active voice only. The definition, "A transitive 
verb is a verb that expresses an action exerted directly upon some 
object," applies to the passive voice as well as to the active, and it does 
not represent the object as completing the meaning of the verb. 

Some writers follow the practice of huddling together two or more 
words and treating them as one word, notwithstanding that each word 
has its own distinct meaning. For instance, less useful and least useful, 
are represented as simple adjectives, and the comparative and superla- 
tive degrees are defined so as to include all such forms. In this work 
each word is treated as a word. 

Most of the common errors committed by writers are mentioned. 
from such abominations as "Come to me days and read and go home 
nights" to the insertion of the preposition of between the adjective all 
and its noun, as in "All of his men were taken prisoners." Whenever 
a writer inserts of between all and its noun he shows that he is not a 
classical writer. 



CONTENTS. 



English Grammar, divisions 11 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters 11 

Classes of Letters 11 

Syllables and Words 13 

Rules for Spelling 14 

ORTHOEPY. 
From what to be learned 18 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Introductory Exercises 19 

Parts of Speech 23 

Nouns 23 

Classes of nouns 24 

Number 26 

Formation of the plural 27 

"The Miss Mortons" 29 

Gender 31 

Painter or paintress? 34 

Case 35 

Person 37 

Declension 38 

Parsing 39 

Adjectives 40 

Comparison 42 

Articles 44 

Examples for parsing 46 

Pronouns 48 

Are pronouns nouns? 48 

Classes of pronouns 49 

Personal 49 

Compound personal 50 

Relative 51 

Relative what 53 

Compound relative 55 

Interrogative 56 

Indefinite 56 

One and other 57 

As and than 58 

Examples for parsing 58 



Verbs 60 

Classes 61 

Voice 64 

Moods 66 

Gerund 68 

Subjunctive and potential 68 

Tenses 72 

Fuller view of 74 

Confounding time and action 77 

Conditions or suppositions 77 

Tenses and moods 79 

Forms of participles 80 

"The house is built" 81 

Number and person 83 

First and third persons of impera- 
tive mood not " abridgments ".. 84 

Conjugation 84 

To love 85 

To be 87 

"We be" 88 

"If I was" and "if I were" 88 

Passive voice 89 

"He is gone" 90 

Progressive form 91 

"I am loving," etc., not good En- 
glish... 91 

"The house is building" 91 

Negative form 93 

Interrogative form 94 

Interrogative negative form 94 

Irregular verbs 95 

Remarks on bear and drink 99 

Errors in the use of 99 

Lay and lie, set and sit 100 

Conjugation of to take 102 

Defective verbs 103 

Beware, methinks 104 

Auxiliary verbs 104 

Shall and will 105 

Cautions concerning will 108 

Should and would 112 

Cautions concerning would 114 

(7) 



8 



CONTENTS. 



Prepositions 120 

What may be the object 121 

List 122 

Remarks on aboard. 122 

According to, concerning 123 

Touching, regarding, respecting, 

bating, excepting, saving 124 

During, pending, not withstanding.. .125 

Except, save. 126 

But 127 

Out of. 128 

Adverbs 130 

Classes 131 

"I saw John only" 132 

The, nay, no, not, yes 133 

To and fro, by tlie bye, ago, at last, 

at hast 134 

The adverb than 135 

Conjunctive adverbs 135 

Comparison 137 

Examples for parsing 137 

Conjunctions 138 

Remarks on both, either, neither, that..l39 
Before, after, since, save, saving, etc. 140 
For this reason, for as much as, yet, 
also, still, otlierwise, besides, etc. ..141 

Interjections 142 

"O for a lodge," etc 143 

Same Word in Different Classes. ...143 

SYNTAX. 

Proposition, Subject, Predicate 145 

Subject and predicate, logical and 

grammatical 147 

Note on the verb be 147 

It, there, that, for 150 

Subject and predicate, simple and 

compound 152 

Kinds of sentences 153 

Modifications 154 

Sentences, simple, complex, and 

compound 159 

Noun-propositions 160 

Adjective- propositions 160 

"In the day that thou eatest 

thereof" 161 

"It is to this place that the gulls 

resort" 161 

"He marched with uhat forces 

he had" 161 

Adjunct- propositions 162 



Proposition, Subject, etc.— continued. 

Adverb-propositions 163 

" That is so disagreeable that " etc.163 
Elliptical propositions, explanation 

of many difficult constructions. ..163 
Substitutes and transformations. ...166 
" The difficulties were so great as 

to deter him" 166 

" Be it ever so humble," etc 166 

" The man is said to be honest "..107 
" He has more than atoned," etc. 167 

"Leaped like the roe," etc 167 

Exercises in analysis. 167 

Rules of Syntax 178 

Subject of verb 178 

"All perished but he " 178 

Predicate-nominative 180 

"It is me" 180 

"Whom he was;" "The dog it 

was that died" 182 

Nouns used independently or ab- 
solutely 184 

Remarks on excepting, regarding, 

granted, ago, etc 184, 185 

Possessive case , 187 

" Warming his hands as if they 

were somebody else's" 188 

"Johnson and Richardson's Dic- 
tionaries" 188 

The 's not always personal 189 

" I am opposed to John wri ting "..189 

Object of transitive verb IBB 

"He learned me grammar" 188 

"The house caught on fire " IBS 

Graduate, locate, leave, etc 193 

Two objectives 193 

Object of preposition 195 

After, before, ere, etc., with noun- 
propositions 195 

"Each man walks with his head 
in a cloud of poisonous flies "...196 

Despite, instead, because, etc 197 

Preposition omitted V.>~: 

"As long as it freezes nights '*.. 

" Where is my book att" 198 

Apposition 200 

Predicate-nominative not in ap- 
position 200 

" The menwent each hl« own w»7*'201 
Common nouns and proper n< MUM 
in apposition 201 



CONTENTS. 



Rules of Syntax— continued. 

Adjectives... 203 

Quality assumed and quality as- 
serted 203 

" Granting this to be true " 204 

"The two first" or "the first 

two"? 205 

" I have no brothers but myself "..206 

"The strangest of the two" 207 

Each, every either, neither 207 

Each other and one another... 208 

' ' The old and young gentleman " . 208 

"All of his men" ........209 

" The north and south poles " 209 

"■The Hon. John Smith" 209 

"Some fifty years ago " 210 

Adjective or adverb? 210 

Verb and subject 213 

"Twice one is two" 214 

Each, every, no 214 

"Thine is the kingdom," etc 214 

" Either thou or I am concerned". .215 

Verb with collective noun 216 

"The public is invited" 216 

"As follows," etc 216 

"There is no man but knows" 217 

Subject improperly omitted 217 

" One of the greatest houses that 

ever was in England " 217 

The infinitive mood 220 

Noun-infinitive 220 

" I saw him fall " 220 

Adjunct-infinitive 221 

Verb-infinitive 222 

"Bills are requested to be paid in 

advance" 222 

To of the infinitive originally a 

preposition 222 

Expressions in which to is still a 

preposition 223 

The simple form used 223 

"They are not willing to do so 

much as listen 223 

Confusion with respect to the 

subject of infinitive 223 

Improper use of one form of the 

infinitive for the other 224 

"Please excuse me," "I will try 

and see him," "I can go if I 

wish to" 224 

"He commenced to speak' 1 224 



Rules of Syntax— continued. 

Preposition and object 228 

Antecedent term omitted , 228 

Two prepositions with the same 

object 228 

Proper prepositions 229 

Au fait of 229 

In or at? 229 

" I am obliged to you " 229 

"A sale by auction or at? 230 

House in Lombard Street or on ?..230 

Under his signature or over? 230 

Adverbs 232 

" Glendower's absence thence"... .232 

Modified word omitted 232 

Adjectives improperly used as ad- 
verbs 233 

"The above statement," etc 233 

" Whether or no " 233 

"A person I never saw but twice' ' .233 
Affirming equality and denying 

equality ...233 

Vulgar errors, "Most suffocated," 

etc 233 

Position of adverbs and adjuncts.234 

Conjunctions 236 

Connected parts corresponding. ...237 

Or or nor? 237 

" This always has been, and it al- 
ways will be admired " 237 

Nothing conjunctions but con- 
junctions 237 

The huddling system 237 

Than, that, etc 238 

Interjections 239 

Miscellaneous remarks 239 

"Jane and myself went" 239 

" The boy that studies " and " The 

boy who studies" 239 

That and who or which 239 

Thou and you 240 

Ambiguity from position of adjec- 
tive-proposition 240 

" He believed that there was but 

one god " 240 

"I wish I knew what the law 

really wots" 240 

Intermingling present and past 

tenses 240 

Past tenses for might, etc., with 
the infinitive 240 



10 



CONTENTS. 



Rules of Syntax— continued. 

" To-morrow is Wednesday " 240 

"A proper selection of faulty com- 
position is more instructive than 
any rules and examples [arej ".2-11 

Had have been 241 

"If he have the money" J41 

" He looked as if he were honest". .241 
" He inquired if he were on the 

right way " 241 

" I wish I was where Anna lies "..241 

Punctuation 243 

The period 243 

The comma 244 

The semicolon 250 

The colon 253 

The interrogation-point 254 

The exclamation-point 255 

The dash 256 



Punctuation— continued. 
The curves, or marks of parenthe- 
sis 258 

The hyphen 259 

The quotation-points jnu 

Other marks joi 

Capital letters 282 

PROSODY. 

Kinds of Feet 2G4 

Rhyme 200 

Kinds of Verse 266 

Iambic 266 

Trochaic 

Anapestic 

Dactylic 

Poetical pauses 27u 

Exercises 'J71 

Parsing ] 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



English Geammae treats of the principles of the English 
These principles relate, 

1. To the written characters of the language; 

2. To its pronunciation; 

3. To the classification of its words ; 

4. To the construction of its sentences; 

5. To its versification. 

The first division is called Orthography; the second, Orthoepy; 
the third, Etymology; the fourth, Syntax; and the fifth, Prosody. 

Note.— These principles are derived from the usage of the best writers and 
speakers. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Oethogeaphy treats of the letters and their combination 
in syllables and words. 

LETTERS. 

A Lettee is a character used to represent a sound of the 
human voice formed by the organs of speech. 

There are twenty-six letters in the English alphabet. 

Classes of Lettees. 
Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 
A Vowel is a letter which itself may form a syllable. 



Of what does English grammar treat? 

To what do these principles relate ? 

What are the names of the divisions of 
English grammar ? 

From what are the principles of gram- 
mar derived? 



Of what does orthography treat? 

What is a letter ? 

How many letters in the English alpha- 

het? 
Into what two classes are letters divided? 
What is a vowel? 



(ii) 



12 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

A Consonant is a letter which is always joined with a vowel. 

A, e, i, o, u, are vowels; b, c, d,f, g, h, j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, 
s, t, v, x, z, are consonants. 

PFand y are consonants when they are immediately followed 
by a vowel-sound in the same syllable ; as in want, twine, what, 
youtli, yellow. 

Note.— Though h in what is placed after w, it is sounded before it. 

In other cases w and y are vowels; as in now, sawing, sky, 
type, Iwly, eye. 

Note.— In the word eye y is followed by a vowel, but the vowel is not sounded. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell in which of the following words w and y are consonants and In which 
they are vowels: 

Water, wet, winter, young, yet, yonder, boy, joy, glory, sowing, 
sawing, new, newly, eye, scythe, brow, cow, when, whip, which, paw, 
enjoying, swine, try, swim. 

Classes of Consonants. 

The consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels. 

A Semivowel is a consonant whose sound may be prolonged ; 
as, 8,f. 

A Mute is a consonant whose sound can not be prolonged ; 
as, p, t 

The mutes are b, p, d, t, h, q, c hard, and g hard. 

Note.— C is hard when it has the sound of h, as in cat ; and soft when it has the 
sound of s. as in city. G is hard when it is sounded as in gun ; and soft when it 
has the sound of j, as in gentle. 

The semivowels are /, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, z, c soft, and g soft. 
X is a double consonant, equivalent to ks. 
It, m, n, r, are sometimes called liquids, because their sounds 
flow readily into union with other sounds; as in blame, dray. 

Remarks.— The vowels represent sounds, the consonants modifteutions of sound 
made by the lips, tongue, palate, etc. The midcs close the organs, so that no sound 

What is a consonant? j What consonants arc m 

Name the vowels. The consonants. What consonantB are semivowels? 

When are w and u consonants? Whit is said of si 

Into what two classes are consonants i Which of the semivowels are called 

divided? liquids? 

What is a semivowel? A mute? | Why are they called liquids? 



SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 



13 



can be emitted while the organs are in that position ; the pure mutes {p, k, t, q, and 
c hard) entirely, and the others nearly so. The semivowels admit the passage of 
sound through the mouth or the nose. Some of the sounds represented by the 
semivowels (as, for instance, v and z,) are almost as pure sounds as those repre- 
sented by the vowels. 

Diphthongs. 

Two vowels in immediate succession in the same syllable 
form a Diphthong ; as, ou in found. 

A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are sounded ; 
as, oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong is one in which only one of the 
vowels is sounded; as, ea in beat. 

Triphthongs. 
Three vowels in immediate succession in the same syllable 
form a Triphthong; as, eau in beau. , 

Remark.— There is no such thing as a proper triphthong, or one in which the 
vowels are all sounded. When buoy is pronounced bwoy, as it is sometimes pro- 
nounced, u becomes a consonant. 

SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

A Syllable is a letter or a combination of letters uttered 
with a single impulse of the voice. Thus in ama, a constitutes 
one syllable and men another. 

A Word is a syllable or combination of syllables used as 
the sign of some idea. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable, a word of 
two syllables a dissyllable; of three syllables a trisyllable; of 
four or more syllables a polysyllable. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell which of the following words are monosyllables, which dissyllables, etc. : 
Twenty, man, happy, unity, school, safety, book, baker, ambiguity, 
magnanimous, monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, tough, crucifix. 

A primitive word is one which is not derived from another 
word in the language ; as, man, holy, love. 



What is a diphthong? 
What is a proper diphthong? An im- 
proper diphthong? 
What is a triphthong? 



What is a syllable ? What is a word ? 
What is a word of one syllable called? 
Of two syllables? Of three syllables? 
What is a primitive word ? 



14 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



A derivative word is one which is derived from another word 
in the language; as, manly, Iwliness, laving. 

A compound word is one which is composed of two or more 
words; as, schoolmaster, laughter-loving. 

A simple word is one which is not compounded; as, word, 
man, day. 

Remarks. — 1. Compound words in common use have their component parts 
united and are written as single words ; as, inkstand. 

2. Other compound words have a hyphen between the component parts; 
as, cloud-compelling. 



SPELLING. 

This art is to be learned from dictionaries and spelling- 
books and from observation in reading. Assistance may be 
derived from the following 

GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 

RULE L 
Monosyllables which end in /, I, or s preceded by a single 
vowel double the final consonant; as, staff, mill, pass. 

Exceptions. — Of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, thus, gas, pus. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following words: 
Mil, mis, gues, bles, spel, wal, tal, staf, stif, muf, puf, gros, las, til. 
Iff, iss, hass, yess, thiss, gass. 

RULE II. 

Words ending in any other consonant than /, I, or s do not 
double the final letter ; as, war, drug. 

Exceptions. — Add, odd, ebb, inn, err, purr, butt, buzz, egg. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following: 
Rapp, whenn, gunn, bragg, tarr, batt, sinn, onn, forr, tubb. 
Ad, eb, od, eg, buz. 



What is a derivative word ? 
What is a compound word ? 
What is a simple word ? 
How are compound words in common 
use written ? 



How are other compounds written? 

What is the first genera] rule for sell- 
ing? Wnnt an- the exceptions? 

What is the second general rule? What 
exceptions ? 



SPELLING. 15 

RULE III. 

Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable which 
end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel double 
that consonant on receiving a termination beginning with a 
vowel. 

Thus blot, blotting, not bloting ; allot, allotting, not alloting; shut, shut- 
ting, not shuting; drop, dropped, not droped; quit, quitting, not quiting. 

Note.— In quit, t is preceded by u and i, but the u has the consonant sound of w. 

Remarks. — 1. There are four conditions to be regarded in this doubling: 

(1). The word must be a monosyllable or a word accented on the last syllable. 

(2). The word must end in a single consonant. 

(3). The consonant must be preceded by a single vowel. 

(4). The termination must begin with a vowel. 

Thus the word differ does not come under the rule, because it is not a mono- 
syllable, nor accented on the last syllable ; consequently we write differing, dif- 
fered, etc., with one r. 

The word defend is accented on the last syllable ; but it does not come under 
the rule, because it ends with two consonants, nd; consequently we write defend- 
ing, not defendding. 

The word soil is a monosyllable, and the word recoil is accented on the last 
syllable, and each of them ends with a single consonant ; but they do not come 
under the rule, because the consonant is preceded by a diphthong, and not by a 
single vowel ; consequently we write boiling, recoiling, with one I. 

The word allotment is spelled with one t, because the termination ment does 
not begin with a vowel. 

2. The reason for doubling the consonant is that the short sound of the vowel 
may be retained in the derivative. Thus, bloting would be pronounced like bloat- 
ing, with the long sound of o. In such words as differing, defending, boiling, allot- 
ment, the proper sound is retained without doubling. 

3. If the derivative removes the accent to another syllable, the consonant is 
not doubled. Thus, refer is accented on the last syllable, fer ; but in reference the 
accent is removed from fer to another syllable, and the word is written with 
one r before the termination ence. 

4. In many words ending in I the I is generally doubled, though the accent is 
not on the last syllable ; as in traveller, modelling, pencilled. So the derivatives of 
bias, worship, and kidnap, double s and p ; as in Massing, worshipped, kidnapper. 
But Webster and some others spell such words with the consonants single, as 
traveler, biased, worshiping. 

5. X is not doubled, because it is a double consonant. Thus, vexing, not 
vexxing. 

EXERCISES. 
Correct the errors in the following: 
Spot, spoted; allot, alloted; annul, annuled; refer, refering; per- 
mit, permited; overset, overseting; beg, begar; dig, diging; begin, 
beginer; run, runer. 

What is the third general rule? I When is it improper to double the last 

When is the last consonant doubled? | consonant? 



16 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Boil, boilling; differ, differrence; proceed, proceedding; defeat, 
defeatted; embroil, embroilling ; bigot, bigotted ; general, generallize ; 
deep, deepper. 

RULE IV. 

Words ending in 11, to avoid trebling a letter, reject one I 
when less or ly is added; as, skill, skilless; chill, chilly. 

Remarks.— 1 Words ending in any other double letter retain the letter double 
before these terminations ; as, odd, oddly ; careless, carelessly. 

2. Some authorities say that one I is rejected when full or ness is added ; as, 
skill, skilfull; chill, chilness. But Webster and some others retain double U, and 
write skillfull, chillness. 

EXERCISES. 
Correct the errors in the following: 
Dull, dullly ; hill, hillly ; full, fullly ; skill, skilllcss. 
Stiff, stifly; peerless, peerlesly; harmless, harmlesly. 

RULE V. 

Final e is omitted before terminations beginning with a 
vowel; as, save, saving; force, forcible; blame, blamable. 

Exceptions. — Words ending in ce or ge retain e before able and 
ous, to preserve the soft sound of c and g ; as, peace, peaceable ; c/> 
changeable; outrage, outrageous. 

Remarks.— L Words ending in oeoxee do not drop e. Thus, hoe, hoeing ; shoe, 
shoeing : agree, agreeing ; except before e, as in shoer, seer. 

2. Dyeing from dye retains e, to distinguish it from dying from die. Svingring 
from swinge, tingeing from tinge, singeing from singe retain c, to distinguish them 
from swinging from swing, tinging from ting, and singing from ting. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following: 
Slave, slaveish; convince, convinceing; change, ehanirrin";; please, 
pleaseing; excuse, excuseable; leave, leaveing; ride, rideing; Mm-, 
blueish. 

Charge, chargable; service, servicable; change, changable; singe, 
singing. 

RULE VI. 
Final e is retained before terminations beginning with a 
consonant; as, close, closely; abate, abatement. 



What is the fourth general role? 

What is said about words ending in any 

other double Letter? 
What is said of words end ing in oe and eef 



Is one I dropped when full or nest is 
added t<> words ending in lit 

What la the fifth rule? What excep- 
tions? What i> the sixth rule? 



SPELLING. 17 

Exceptions. — Duly, truly, awful drop e. Argument, from the Latin 
argumentum, is not an exception. 

When the e is preceded by dg some drop and others retain e; as, 
abridge, abridgment, or abridgement. The e is usually dropped in 



EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following: 

Sincere, sincerly; sedate, sedatness; advance, advancment; cease, 
ceasless; love, lovly; waste, wastful; arrange, arrangment. 

Judge, judgement; lodge, lodgement; acknowledge, acknowledge- 
ment. 

EXILE VII. 

Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change y into % 
when a termination is added; fly, files; merry, merrier, merriest, 
merriment. 

Exception. — Before ing y is retained that i may not he doubled; as, 
carry, carrying. 

Remarks. — 1. Words ending in ie, after dropping e before ing, changed into y 
for the same reason ; as, die, dying. 

2. Some write dryness, dryly; shyness, shyly; slyness, slyly. 

3. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel retain the y; as, play, playing; 
valley, valleys. 

4. Some write gaily and gaiety, but the regular forms gayly and gayety are 
preferred. 

EXERCISES. 
Correct the errors in the following: 
Happy, happyer; mercy, mercyful; spy, spyes; carry, carryed; 
vary, varyance; deny, denyed; lady, ladyes. 

Tarry, tarriing; deny, deniing; fancy, fanciing. 
Stay, staiing; dismay, dismaied; valley, vallies; chimney, chim- 
nies; day, dales. 

KULE VIII. 

Some words ending in II drop one I in composition ; as, 

full, handful; all, always. 

Remark.— Some writers improperly drop one I in such words as foretell, enroll, 
recall. 

What exceptions to the sixth rule ? I What is said of words ending in y pre- 

What is said about e when preceded by ceded bv a vowel ? 

dg in abridgement ? In judgment ? What is the eishth rule ? 

What is the seventh rule? What excep- What remark about such words as fore- 

tions to this rule? j tell f etc. 



18 ORTHOEPY. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following: 
Carefull, wellcome, usefull, all ways, hurtful 1, allready. 
Fulfil, miscal, waterfal, sandhil. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

Some of the words in the following exercises are to be corrected according to 
the preceding rules ; others are intended to exercise the pupil in consulting the 
dictionary. 

Vicees are two often called follys. 

How doo you spel recieve and beleive? 

Til and untill have the same meaning. 

Neglect no oportunity of dooing good. 

All our comforts procede from the Father of goodnes. 

A dutyful child will be loveed by awl. 

We are frequently benefitted by what we have dreadded. 

"We should make a propper use of the tallents commited to us. 

Picturs that resemble flowers smel onely of paint. 

Irreconcileable animosity is airways blameable. 

To reason with the angry iss like whisperring to the deaf. 

An obliging and humble disposition is totally unconnected with a 
servil and cringeing humor. 

With all thy geting, get understanding. 

A man may have a verry good judgement without being }■• 
of tallent. 

Abridgements of history are in most respects useles. 

He went with the sybil through the labirinth. 

I intend to send a coppy of this to show his hypocricy. 

He was preparing to seperate himself from his companions. 

They conceded that this was superceded by the other. 

She was thrown into the greatest extacy by this news. 

Note.— The rules for punctuation, for the use of capital letters, etc., will be 
given hereafter. 



ORTHOEPY. 

Orthoepy treats of the right pronunciation of words. This 
is to be learned from dictionaries and spelling-books, and from 
the practice of cultivated speakers. 

Of what does orthoepy treat? 



ETYMOLOGY. 



19 



ETYMOLOGY. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

In connected discourse we give the name of some person, 
place, or other thing, and then we say something about the 
person, place, or other thing; as, "John plays." 

Here we give the name of a person, and then we tell what he does. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell who or what is spoken of in the following exercises, and what is said 
about him, her, or it: 

"William plays. Thomas runs. Mary skips. James reads. Anna 
sings. Boys play. Girls sew. Eire burns. Birds sing. Dogs bark. 
Horses neigh. Children play. Clara laughs. Edith coughs. 

The word representing what is spoken of is called the 
subject, and the word expressing what is said about that 
which is spoken of is called the predicate. 

The subject and the predicate together form a proposition. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the subjects and predicates in the following exercises: 
John plays. "William plays. Thomas runs. Mary skips. James 
reads. Anna sings. Dogs bark. Peter whistles. Theodore shoots. 
Horses gallop. Cows low. Rivers flow. Plants grow. 

The subject is a noun; the predicate is a verb. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the nouns and the verbs in the following exercises: 
John plays. William reads. Birds sing. Thomas walks. Mary 
runs. Winds roar. Rain falls. Cows drink. Crows caw. Grass 
grows. Snow melts. Eire burns. Rats gnaw. Squirrels jump. 

Verbs having the sign to are said to be in the infinitive 
mood; as, to play, to run, to jump, to sing, to dance. 



What is given in connected discourse ? 
What word is called the subject? 
What word is called the predicate ? 
^hat do the subject and predicate form? 



What is the subject ? 
What is the predicate ? 
What word is the sign of the infinitive 
mood? 



20 ETYMOLOGY. 

Verbs not in the infinitive mood are called finite verbs; as, 
plays, runs, jumps, sings, dances. 

A word may be used with the noun to describe or point 
out the object; as, "Good boys study;" "The boy studies." 

Here we use the word good to describe the boys that study, and 
the word the to point out some particular boy. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the words that describe or point out the objects: 
Active boys play. Industrious girls sew. Bad dogs bite. Merry 
boys whistle. The river flows. The tree grows. Strong men plow. 
Loud winds roar. Bad boys quarrel. Old trees fall. Thirsty COWi 
drink. The girl sings. The bright stars twinkle. The little birds 
chirp. The lovely spring appears. 

Those words that describe or point out the objects are called 
adjectives. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the adjectives: 
Active boys. Industrious girls. Bright days. Dry grass. Sour 
apples. Sweet pears. Ugly birds. That man. Beautiful weather. 
Fine ladies. Red flowers. Wicked women. Useful employments. 
Happy children. Instructive books. Kind teachers. Black cloth. 
Red feathers. White gloves. Golden hair. Blue eyes. Long arms. 
This woman. That large cage. 

Words may be used with verbs to denote manner, time, 
place, and they are said to modify the verbs; as, "William 
plays well;" " Joshua often plays;" "Edward plays here." 

EXERCISES. 

Name the words that modify verbs: 
Anna sings sweetly. That river flows gently. Those plants grow 
rapidly. Those boys study diligently. James reads beautifully. The 
girl behaved badly. The day ended happily. Jane acted wisely. 
Mary lives there. I live here. She studies now. William never fails. 
He came late. 

The modifying words are called adverbs. 

How may words i>c used with voter 
What are such words culled? 



INTEODUCTOEY EXEECISES. 21 

EXERCISES. 

Name the adverbs in the following: 
That dog barks continually. The rain fell softly. George spoke 
kindly. The wind roared furiously. The lamb bleated piteously. 
That child eats greedily. The man worked faithfully. Timothy 
writes badly. Cora comes early. 

A word may be used to show some kind of relation between 
things; as, ''The river runs under the bridge;" "He sits cm 
a chair." 

Under shows a relation between the bridge and the running ; on 
shows a relation between the chair and the sitting. 

About, above, across, against, at, before, behind, by, down, from, in, 
into, of, on, over, past, round, till, to, under, up, with, are some of the 
principal words of this class. 

EXERCISES. 

"Point out the words that show relations: 
The cat runs about the house. Virginia walked across the meadow. 
Moses fell into the pond. Edith walked before Cora. Matilda stepped 
over the brook. The rabbit ran round the house. Jane went with 
Mary. Minnie ran from Alice. Clara ran down the hill. 

Words of this kind are called prepositions. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the prepositions: 
Thomas walks behind Alfred. Henry went to Memphis. Ada 
walked to New Albany. The girl ran past the house. The boat 
went up the river. Arthur lay on the grass. The squirrel came 
down the tree. Julia looked at the glass. The horse ran against 
the fence. He waited till night. John is sitting under a tree. 

Some words are used to connect words; as, "John and 
James play;" "Mary laughs mid sings." 

In the first sentence and connects the two subjects John and James ; 
in the second sentence and connects the two predicates laughs and sings. 

For what purpose are words of the next I For what purpose are words of the next 

class used? class used? 

What are such words called ? I What are such words called ? 



22 ETYMOLOGY. 

Words of this class sometimes connect propositions; as, 
"John plays, and Mary sings;" "John plays, but Mary sings." 

In the first sentence and connects the two propositions "John 
plays" and "Mary sings;" in the second sentence but connects the 
two propositions. 

And, or, nor, but, yet, if, lest, as, because, for, though, unless, are 
some of the principal words of this class. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the words that connect words or propositions : 
Mary and Jane walk. Thomas and Theodore study. James or 
Edward went. The hoys played, and the girls studied. Henry rides, 
though Ida walks. Harriet waits, because Horace wishes. 

These connecting words are called conjunctions, 

EXERCISES. 

Name the conjunctions: 
Jane and Irene sang. The birds sang, and the dogs barked. The 
dogs barked because the birds sang. The dogs bark if the birds sing. 
Jonathan and "William ran. Joshua ran, but Josiah walked. Benjamin 
rode, though Charles walked. 

Words are sometimes thrown in as mere exclamations ; as, 
"Alas! she is gone." 

O, ah, alas, pshaw, tush, ho, huzza, hurrah, bravo, fie, are words 
of this class. 

EXERCISES. 
Point out the words of exclamation : 
Hurrah! we have a holiday. Pshaw! Who said so? Ho! come 
here. Alas ! the beautiful city perished. Bravo ! You spoke well. 

These words are called interjections. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the interjections: 
Fie! John, do not behave so. Huzza! he is coming. We ta 
to see him; but, ah! he never came. Pshaw! that is nonsense. Hoi 
cowards, are you afraid ? 

What besides do these words connect V 
What are these connecting words called ? 



NOUNS. 23 

Etymology treats of the classification and properties of 
words. 

Words are divided into eight classes, called Parts of 
Speech. 

These parts of speech are called Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, Preposition, Adverb, Conjunction, and Interjection. 

Note.— Articles are adjectives. Pronouns are really nouns. (See p. 48.) 

NOUNS. 

A Noun is the name of an object; as, John, horse, whiteness. 

Remarks.— L The word noun is derived from the Latin word nomen, which 
means name. 

2. The mind may consider even nonentity, or the absence of a thing, as a posi- 
tive idea ; as, non-existence, nought, nullity, nothing. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the nouns among the following words. There are twelve in each division : 

1. John is a boy. James met a beggar. The man and his horse 
are out in the rain. Thomas threw a snowball. George went to Cin- 
cinnati in a steamboat. 

2. That tree is high. The cat scratched the dog. The sun gives 
light. The fixed stars are supposed to be suns. Fishes swim in the 
sea. The snail does not move quite so fast as the eagle or hawk. 

3. A big stick. The long rope. Soft, silky hair. Clean hands and 
shining faces. Frosty weather makes red noses. The cat ran off with 
a piece of meat in her mouth. Sharp claws. 

4. The horse runs swiftly. The swiftness of the deer is wonderful. 
A virtuous man is loved. Virtue is lovely. The night is dark. Dark- 
ness is gloomy. John has torn the cover, leaves, and back of his book. 

5. These are beautiful flowers. The beauty of the plants in the 
garden. A brilliant light. The brilliancy of the color. Iron is hard. 
The hardness of stone. Howard was a good man. 

6. Cicero was an orator. Love is stronger than death. Lead is 
heavy. Flour is made of wheat. Falsehood is base. Wisdom is more 
precious than jewels. The stars were created by God. 

7. The busy bee gathers honey from flowers. In the spring, the trees 
put out leaves. In the winter, snow falls, and water freezes. "Walnuts 
have hard shells and sweet kernels. 

Of what does etymology treat? I What are the parts of speech called ? 

Into how many classes are words What is a noun ? 

divided ? I From what is the word noun derived ? 



24 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note.— When two or more words are employed to designate one individual, 
they are considered as one name or noun ; as, Robinson Crusoe, Oliver Cromwell. 

8. George Washington was the first president, and was succeeded 
by John Adams. Daniel Boone was one of the first explorers of the 
western country. Napoleon Bonaparte was a great general. Louis 
Philippe is the name of a former king of France. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

Nouns are divided into two classes, proper and common. 

A Proper Noun is the name of an individual object; as, 
John, Vesuvius. 

A Common Noun is a name which may be applied to each 
one of several objects forming a class; as, boy, mountain. 

Note.— Vesuvius is the name of an individual mountain; but mountain is a 
name belonging to each one of a whole class of objects. These objects are classed 
together and have the same name on account of having certain properties in 
common. 

Remarks.— 1. The same proper name is often applied to each of several indi- 
viduals, but not because they have certain properties in common and form a 
class. Thus, several persons are called John, but these individuals do not form a 
class. 

2. Proper names are sometimes used to designate a class and then become 
common nouns; as, "The twelve Cscsars." Here twelve individuals are classed 
together, because they have the same name, at least, in common. 

3. A proper name becomes a common noun when it is employed to denote 
character. Thus we say of a great and good general, " He is a Washington," or, 
"The Washington of his country." 

4. A common noun employed to denote an individual object becomes a proper 
noun; as, " The Falls of Niagara." 

5. Proper nouns always begin with capital letters, even when they are used as 
common nouns. 

A common noun which designates two or more objects 
considered as one collection or body is called a collective noun ; 
as, pair, flock, army, multitude. 

Note.— The word army denotes a great many individuals, but they are consid- 
ered as forming a single body. 

EXERCISES. 
1. Name the proper and common nouns in the following: 
The Ohio is a beautiful river. Frankfort is the capital of the st:it <* 
of Kentucky, but Louisville is the largest town. Henry has a dog 

Into what classes are nouns divided ? I When the same proper name bel< n 
What is a proper noun? each of Bevexal individuals why la it 

What is a common noun? not a common noon? 

When do proper nouns become common? How do proper nouns always begin? 
When do common nouns become proper ? | What is a collective noun ? 



nouns. 25 

named Eido. George went down to New Orleans on the steamboat 
Grey Eagle. 

The Ben Sherrod was burned on the Mississippi, and many lives 
were lost. The Falls of Niagara are between Lake Erie and Lake 
Ontario. The Andes are lofty mountains. The battle of "Waterloo 
occurred in June. William Henry Harrison died on the third day 
of April. 

2. Mention three proper nouns; three common. 

3. Put a proper noun in each of the following blanks : 

.... behaves well knows her lesson. I saw killed 

.... He knows and .... went to town and .... 

are good girls can jump farther than is a large city. 

.... is a great country. The .... is a beautiful river. The steamboat 
.... arrived at ... . to-day. 

4. Put a common noun in each of the following blanks: 
I saw my .... to-day are larger than .... Those are deli- 
cious .... My .... is better than yours. Your .... is worth more 
than my .... This is a red .... She has a new .... He has written 
a . . . . The sun rising above the .... had gilded the .... of the .... 

5. Put a proper noun in place of the common nouns in the following: 
A man is larger than a boy. A liar is as bad as a thief. A drunk- 
ard injures himself. A horse can run fast. I saw a girl. The bird 
sings sweetly. A dog barks. 

6. Put a collective noun in each of the following blank spaces: 
That is a large .... Alexander defeated the .... of Darius. The 
.... agreed in their verdict. A large .... of cattle. A small ..... of 
birds. The .... was dismissed. Follow not the .... to do evil. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or of action or 
being , or of a mode of action or being; as, whiteness, goodness, 
haste, confusion, action, existence. 

Remarks.— 1. Abstract nouns are so called because they are the names of 
qualities, etc. . abstracted or considered apart from the objects to which they belong. 
Thus, honesty is considered as a quality existing Avithont connection with any 
particular person; as, "Honesty is the best policy." So destruction is considered 
apart from any destroyer. 

2. Abstract nouns are usually classed among common nouns, though not very 
properly. An abstract noun does not denote a class of objects. The word honesty, 

What is an abstract noun? I Why are abstract nouns so called? 

3 



26 



ETYMOLOGY. 



for example, denotes a quality which is found in many individuals, but it Is 
always the same quality ; but the word boy, when applied to Thomas, does not 
mean the same individual that it does when applied to John. Abstract nouns, 
when used as such, have no plural, and do not admit of a or an or one before 
them, as every noun does which denotes a class. In these respects abstract resem- 
ble proper nouns. 

3. The same word may be either an abstract or a common noun, according to 
the meaning attached to it. Thus, when we say, " Virtue is lovely," we use the 
word virtue as the name of a single quality and it is an abstract noun ; but when 
we speak of the virtues of charity, of justice, of temperance, etc., the word is 
applied to a class and is a common noun. 

Substantial Nouns are such as denote the substance of 
which objects are composed. Such are the names of metals, 
grains, etc. ; as, iron, gold, ivheat, snmu, fire. 

Note. — Nouns of this kind are sometimes called quantitive nouns, because they 
are the names of objects that increase or decrease in quantity, not in number. 

Remarks.— 1. These, as well as abstract nouns, are usually classed with com- 
mon nouns. But they do not, strictly speaking, denote classes of objects. Like 
abstract nouns, they have no plural and do not admit a or an or one before them. 

2. Substantial, as Well as abstract nouns, may become common nouns by vary- 
ing the sense. Thus, when we say, " Snow is white," we use snow as a substantial 
noun; but when we say, "A snow fell last night," we mean a body of snow, and 
use the word as a common noun. The words cotton?, grasses, etc., are often used 
instead of kinds of grass, etc. ; these words are in such cases used as common 
nouns. 

To nouns belong number, gender, case, and person. 



NUMBER. 

Number is a property of nouns denoting whether one 
object is meant or more than one. 

There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

The Singular Number denotes one object ; as, chair, tree. 

The Plural Number denotes more Hian one; as, chairs, 
trees, tables. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the number of each of the following nouns : 
Book, knife, pens, chairs, table, candle, hats, bonnet, handkerchief, 
feet, hands, eye, ears, children, ox, mice, geese, teeth, oxen, leaves, wife, 
wives, women, men. 



What are substantial nouns ? 

How are they usually classed ? 

How may (hey become common nouns? 

What belong to nouns? 



What is number ? 

How many numbers? 

What does the singular number denote? 

What does the plural number denote? 



NOUNS. 



27 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

The regular mode of forming the plural is by adding s to 
the singular; as, book, books; page, pages. 

"When the singular ends with a sound which can not unite with s 
then es is added; as, church, churches; box, boxes; kiss, kisses; brush, 
brushes. 

Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant generally add es; as, 
negro, negroes; wo, woes; hero, heroes. 

Exception. — Two has twos, because o has the sound of oo. Most persons write 
cantos, juntos, etc. It would he better to have uniformity. 

Other nouns in o add s only; as, folio, folios. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y into ie, and 
add s ; as, lady, ladies ; fly, flies. 

Other nouns in y do not change the y; as, day, days; valley, valleys. 

Proper nouns do not change the y when they are used in the plural ; 
as, the Henrys. 

The following nouns change / and fe into ve and add s : Leaf, calf, 
self, half, beef, loaf, sheaf, shelf, wolf, wharf, thief, elf, wife, knife, life. 
Thus, leaves, calves, knives, etc. 

Staff makes staffs or staves. The compounds of staff are regular ; 
as, flag-staff, flag-staffs. Wharf has wharfs or wharves. 

Other nouns in/ and fe are regular: Fife, fifes; grief , grief s. 

The following nouns form the plural more irregularly: 
Child, children; Louse, lice; Goose, geese; 

Man, men; Die, dice; Mouse, mice; 

Woman, women; Tooth, teeth; Penny, pence. 

Ox, oxen; Foot, feet; 

Kine was formerly the plural of cow. 

Brother has, besides the regular plural, brethren, which is now used 
only in the solemn style. 

Die when it means a stamp has a regular plural. 

We use pence when referring merely to the value, and pennies when 
referring to the number of coins. Thus six pence may be all in one 
coin ; but six pennies are six separate coins. 

Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine, vermin, 
is, odds, news. 



What is the regular mode of forming the 

plural ? When is es added ? 
How do nouns in o form the plural? 
How do nouns in y form the plural ? 
How do nouns in / and fe form the 

plural ? 



What is the plural of child, etc. ? 
What is said of kine ? 
What is said of brother? Of diet 
What is said of pence and i^enniesf 
Name the nouns which are alike in both 
numbers. 



28 ETYMOLOGY. 

When people signifies a community or body of persons it is a collect- 
ive noun in the singular number, and has sometimes, though rarely, a 
plural; as, " Many peoples and nations and tongues and kings.'' — Bee. 
x, 11. When it signifies persons it is plural; as, "Many peopL irere 
present." 

The words alms, amends, riches, wages, and pains (in the sense of 
laborious effort) are sometimes construed as singular, but mon 
quently as plural. 

Bellows is by some considered as plural, like tongs, scissors, etc. ; as, 
"To make a good orator of a pair of bellows." — Tatler, No. 70. J>y 
others it is considered both singular and plural. 

Summons and gallows are singular and have in the plural summonses 
and gallowses. 

Fish has a regular plural; as, "Two small fishes;" but fish is often 
used as plural; as, "We are to blame for eating these fish." Trout, 
salmon, etc., are both singular and plural. 

Such names of sciences as mathematics, ethics, optics, pneumatics, 
acoustics, metaphysics, politics, hydrostatics, though originally plural, 
are now generally construed as singular; as, "Ethics is the science of 
the laws which govern our actions as moral agents." — Sir W. Hamilton, 
"Mathematics has not a foot to stand on which is not purely metaphys- 
ical." — De Quincey. 

Horse and foot when they denote bodies of soldiers are plural ; as, 
"The army consisted of five hundred horse and five thousand foot." 

Sail when it denotes a collection of ships is plural; as, "The fleet 
consisted of forty sail." 

Gannon and shot are sometimes used as plural. 

Yoke is sometimes plural; as, "Five hundred yoke of oxen." — Bible. 

Most compounds form their plural regularly, by adding s to the sin- 
gular; as, handful, handfids; maid-servant, maidservants; outpouring, 
outpourings. 

But sometimes the noun of the compound, when it comes first, is 
treated as if not coalescing with the other part-, and the 8 is added to 
the simple noun, and not to the end of the compound word; as, father- 
in-law, fathers-in-law; court-ma rt'urf, courts - martial ; knight- errant, 
knights-e rrant. 

Man-servant changes both the simple words; as, men ser van ts. So, 
women-servants, Knights Templars. 

What is said of peoplet Of alms and I What is said <>f /iwcand foott Of sailt 
amends f Of bellows, etc. ? Of car non and shot f Of yoke f 

What is said of gaUovml Of fisht Of ; Bow do compounds form the plural? 

mathematics, ethics, etc. ? i What is Baid of man-servant t 



NOUNS. 



29 



Proper names take the plural form when two or more persons of 
the same name are classed together; as, '■'■The Mortons." So, when a 
title {Miss, Mr., etc.) is prefixed; as, "The Miss Mortons;" "The Mr. 
Andersons." "The Miss Flamboroughs." — Goldsmith. "The Miss Hor- 
necks." — Washington Irving. "The Miss Berry s." — Sydney Smith. "The 
Miss Browns." — Maria Edgeworth. "The Miss Germains." — Macaulay. 
"The Miss Cramptons, or to quote the authority of the inscription on 
the garden-gate of Minerva House, Hammersmith, the Misses Cramp- 
ton." — Dickens. The title in such cases may he considered as an adjec- 
tive; thus, the word Miss comprehends the ideas expressed hy the 
adjectives unmarried and female; or, the title and the name may be 
considered as forming a compound name. 

If the persons are spoken of individually, the title takes the plural 
form; as, "Misses Julia and Maria Morton;" "Messrs. George and 
Thomas Anderson?' 

Note.— Messrs. is an abbreviation of the word Messieurs, plural of the French 
word Monsieur, which corresponds to the English word Mister. 

Several nouns derived from foreign languages retain the plural 
forms of the languages from which they are derived. 



SINGULAR. 

Animalculum, . 
Antithesis, . . . . 
Apparatus, . . , 



PLURAL. 

animalcula. 

antitheses. 

apparatus. 



Appendix,! . . . appendices. 
Arcanum, .... arcana. 
Automaton, . . . automata. 

Axis, axes. 

Basis, bases. 

Beau,! beaux. 

Calx, calces. 

Cherub,^ cherubim. 

Cicerone, ciceroni. 

Crisis, crises. 

Criterion,! .... criteria. 

Datum, data. 

Desideratum, . . desiderata. 
Diaeresis, diaeresis. 



SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Genus, genera. 

Hiatus, hiatus. 

Hippopotamus, . hippopotami. 
Hypothesis, . . . hypotheses. 
Ignis fatuus, . . . ignes fatui. 

Lamina, laminae. 

Magus, magi. 

Medium, media. 

Memorandum,! . memoranda. 
Metamorphosis. 
Monsieur, . . . 
Parenthesis, . . 
Phenomenon, . 

Radius, 

Series, series. 

Seraph,! seraphim. 

Species, species. 

Stamen, stamina. 



metamorphoses. 

messieurs. 

parentheses. 

phenomena. 

radii. 



When do proper names take a plural 

form? 
What takes place when a title is joined 

with a proper noun in the plural ? 



from foreign languages? 
What is the plural of antithesis, etc. 'i 



30 



ETYMOLOGY. 



SINGULAR PLURAL. 

Stimulus, .... stimuli. 

Stratum, strata. 

Superficies, . . . superficies. 

Thesis, theses. 

Vertex, vertices. 

Vortex, vortices. 

Virtuoso, .... virtuosi. 



SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Effluvium, .... effluvia. 

Ellipsis, ellipses. 

Emphasis, .... emphases. 
Encomium, J . . . encomia. 
Erratum, .... errata. 

Focus, foci. 

Formula,:}: .... formula?. 

The words marked f have also the plural in s; as, appendixes, beaus, 
cherubs, criterions, encomiums, memorandums, seraphs. Some writers 
give the plural s to other words in this list; as, calxes, apparatus ■•*, 
mediums, focuses, stamens. 

Genius, which is sometimes written genie, has genii when aerial 
spirits are meant; but geniuses when persons of genius are meant. 

Index has indices when referring to algebraic quantities; but indcxet 
when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents. 

Instead of animalcidum the English form animalcule is now gener- 
ally used. The plural form animalcules is sometimes improperly used. 

To denote the plural of mere characters, s preceded by an apos- 
trophe ( ' ) is added; as, two a's; three 5' s. 

Some words derived from foreign languages have no singular ; as, 
antipodes, credenda, literati, minutiae. So, vertebrata, infusoria, and 
some other scientific terms. 

Abstract and substantial nouns, from the nature of their significa- 
tion, have no plural. There are no such words as honesties, h* 
golds, whitenesses. 

But where nouns which are usually abstract or substantial are used 
as common, they may have the plural form. 

Such nouns as scissors, lungs, tongs, have no singular, because they 
denote objects which consist of two parts. 

Some nouns are used in the plural number only; as, annals, thanks, 
riches, clothes, mumps, measles, hysterics, oats, fireworks, ashes, victuals, 
eaves, nuptials, suds, entrails, orgies, tidings, obsequies. 

Molasses is a substantial noun and singular, like honey. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the plural form of each of the following words: 
Table, door, chair, step, window, stove, oven, shovel, star. SO] 
moon, plant, candlestick, monarch, farmer, face, place. 

What is said about acniusf 

What is said about hxjr.r f A n imaleul*' f 

How is the plural of mere characters 

formed ? 
Name some nouns having no singular. 



What is said of abstract and substantial 

nouns? 
What is said of such nouns as scissors, 

etc? 

What is said of makusm. etc.? 



NOUNS. 



31 



Box, fox, miss, wish, lash, lass, loss, inch, watch, atlas. 

Volcano, hero, cargo, veto, calico, potato, buffalo, memento, mulatto, 
manifesto, octavo, motto. 

Folio, bagnio, seraglio, punctilio, nuncio, bamboo, cuckoo, cameo. 

Story, history, mystery, lady, baby, fancy, study, duty, cherry, sty, 
berry, theory, fury, ally, entry. 

Day, play, chimney, alley, essay, ray, turkey, kidney, galley, valley. 

Calf, self, beef, leaf, sheaf, shelf, life, grief, hoof, brief, roof, scarf. 

Child, ox, man, woman, tooth, foot, goose, mouse, louse, die, penny. 

Deer, sheep, swine, vermin, means, odds, news. 

Handful, spoonful, cupful, sister-in-law, mother-in-law, commander- 
in-chief, court-martial. 

Antithesis, apparatus, etc. 

GENDER 

Gender is a property of nouns founded on the distinction 
of sex. 

There are four genders; the masculine, the feminine, the 
common, and the neuter. 

Nouns which denote males are of the Masculine Gender; 
as, man, boy, lion. 

Nouns which denote females are of the Feminine Gender ; 
as, woman, girl, lioness. 

Nouns which are applied to living beings without reference to 
sex are of the Common Gender; as, parent, cousin, sheep. 

Nouns which denote things without sex are of the Neuter 
Gender; as, tree, paper, booh. 

Remarks. — 1. Observe that the word gender does not mean sex. It is a gram- 
matical term applied to the names of objects, while sex belongs to the objects them- 
selves. There are only two sexes, but there are four distinctions of nouns arising 
from sex. 

2. The word neater means neither. The neuter gender includes the names of 
those objects that are neither male nor female, or, in other words, have no sex. The 
common gender includes those words that are common to both sexes, or, in other 
words, are applied without reference to sex. 

3. As none but living beings have the distinction of sex, the names of inani- 
mate objects are of course neuter. 



What is gender? 

How many genders? 

What nouns are of the masculine 



What nouns are of the feminine gender? 
What nouns are of the common gender ? 
What nouns are of the neuter gender? 
Of what gender are inanimate objects? 



32 



ETYMOLOGY. 



4. For some classes of living beings we have terms which are applied to every 
individual in the class without reference to sex, that is, nouns of the common 
guilder; and also terms denoting the males and females, that is, nouns of the 
masculine and feminine genders. Thus, slteep is of the common gender, ram of 
the masculine, and ewe of the feminine. 

5. For other classes we have uouns of the common gender only ; and when we 
wish to denote the males and females we join to the nouns of the common gen- 
der words that point out the sex of the objects. Thus, sparrow is of the common 
gender, and cock-sparrow denotes the male, and hen-sparrow the female. 

6. For other classes we have no nouns of the common gender, but only those 
which denote the males and the females. Thus, horse is of the masculine, and mare 
of the feminine gender; but there is no name applied to every individual in the 
class without reference to sex. 

In such cases, if we wish to denote the whole class, we either 

(a) Use both the masculine and feminine nouns; as, "Brothers and sisters 
should love each other;" or, 

(b) Employ a circumlocution ; as, " The children of the same parents should love 
each other;" or, 

(c) Use the term applied to that sex, whether male or female, to which the 
attention is most frequently directed, to include the whole class. Thus, when we 
say, "Horses are gramnivorous animals," avc include mares; and when we say, 
"Geese are noisy," we include ganders. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Of words which are applied to every individual in the class 
without reference to sex; the male and female being denoted by- 
other words. 



COMMON. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Person, . . 


. man, . . 


. woman. 


Child, . . . 


. son, . . 


. daughter. 


Parent, . . 


. father, . 


. mother. 


Pish,. . . . 


. milter, . 


. spawner. 


Bird or fowl 


cock, . . 


. hen. 



Deer, . 



Hog, . 



MASCULINE. 

. . ram, . . , 

{buck, . . 
stag, . . . 
hart, . . . 
. . boar, . . , 



FEMININE. 

. ewe. 
. doe. 
. hind. 
. roe. 
. sow. 



2. Of names applied to every individual in the class; other words 
being connected with the name of the object to denote the box. 

COMMON. MASCULINE. 

Kelative, male relative, 

Servant, man-servant, 

Sparrow, cock-sparrow, 

Goat, he-goat, 

Turkey, turkey-cock, 

3. Of different words applied to each of the sexes; no term common 
to both being in use. 



FEMININE. 

. female relative. 
. maid-servant. 
. hen-sparrow. 
. she-goat 
. turkey-hen. 



What is said of such words as theep ami 

sparrow f 
What is said of horse., man, cic. V 
(Jive some examples of words which arc 

applied to every individual in the class, 



other words being connected with the 
name of the object to denote ; 
Give Borne examples of different words 
applied to each of the sexes, no term 
common to both sexes being in nse. 



NOUNS. 



33 



MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Bachelor, maid. 

Beau, belle. 

Boy, girl. 

Bridegroom, bride. 

Brother, sister. 

Bull, cow. 

Bullock or steer, . . heifer. 

Drake, duck. 

Friar [monk], .... nun. 
Gander, goose. 



MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Horse, mare. 

Husband, wife. 

King, queen. 

Lad, lass. 

Lord, lady. 

Nephew, niece. 

Sir, madam. 

Sloven, slut. 

Uncle, aunt. 

Wizard, witch. 



FEMININE. 

mistress. 

mayoress. 

patroness. 



chantress. 
conductress. 

countess. 

dauphiness. 

deaconess. 

duchess. 



poetess. 
, priestess. 
, princess. 

prioress. 



To this class belong the following, in which the feminine noun is 
formed by adding a termination to the masculine, which in many 
instances undergoes some change. They are chiefly appellations de- 
rived from the offices and occupations of mankind. 

The feminine termination ess is the regular English termination; 
the other feminine terminations belong to other languages. 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Abbot, abbess. 

Actor, actress. 

Adulterer, .... adulteress. 

Arbiter, arbitress. 

Baron, baroness. 

Benefactor, . . . benefactress. 

Caterer, 

Chanter, 

Conductor, .... 
Count, ") 

Earl, J 

Dauphin, 

Deacon, 

Duke, 

Elector, 

Embassador or\ 
Ambassador, J 
Emperor, .... empress. 
Enchanter, . . . enchantress. 

Giant, giantess. 

God, goddess. 

Governor, .... 

Heir, 

Host, hostess. 



MASCULINE. 

Master, . . . 
Mayor, . . . 
Patron, . . . 
Peer, . . . . 
Poet, 

Priest, . . . 
Prince, . . . 
Prior, . . . . 
Prophet, . . 
Protector, . 
Shepherd, . 
Songster, . . 
Sorcerer, . . 
Tiger, . . . 



. . . protectress. 



songstress, 
sorceress. 



•{ 



Traitor, 

Tutor, 

Viscount, .... 

Sultan, 

Czar, 

Don, 

Infante or infant, 

Signor, 

Administrator, . 



traitoress or trait- 
ress. 

tutoress or tutress. 
viscountess, 
sultanessorsultana 
czarina, 
donna, 
infanta, 
signora 
administratrix. 



34 ETYMOLOGY. 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Hunter, huntress. Executor, .... executrix. 

Instructor, .... instructress. Testator, testatrix. 

Jew, Jewess. Hero, heroine. 

Lion, lioness. Landgrave, . . . landgravine. 

Marquis, marchioness. Margrave, .... margravine. 

To these add widower, widow; the masculine in this case being 
formed from the feminine. 

Remarks.— 1. When nouns of the common gender are used, we may often 
determine, from some circumstance or other, whether males or femal 
referred to; hut not from the nouns themselves. So far as the nouns are con- 
cerned, sex is left entirely out of view. It will not do to say that the nouns are 
either masculine and feminine, or masculine or feminine. In such a sentence as 
this, " John visited his two cousins," we can not say that cousin* is masculine, for 
both may be females ; we can not say it is feminine, for both may be males ; we 
can not say that cousins is masculine and feminine, for both cousins may be males, 
or both may be females; we can not say that the word is masculine or feminine, 
for one cousin may be a male and the other a female. 

2. The sex of the lower animals is generally, and that of young children often, 
disregarded, the pronoun it being applied to them ; as, "The dog seized the snake 
and killed it;" " They dosed the child with drugs till they killed it." 

3. Sometimes a whole species of the lower animals is regarded as male or as 
female, from the most prominent characteristics of the species as compared with 
those of the human race; as, "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways 
and be wise." Here the ant is spoken of as female on account of its possessing the 
domestic and industrious habits which the writer supposes to belong to females 
of the human race. 

4. Nouns denoting office, occupation, character, and other things of the kind 
are generally of the common gender, having no reference to sex. Thus pafwftr 
means a person that paints, not a male person that paints, and there is no need of 
the word paintress. Editor means a person that edits, and there is no need of the 
word editress. 

5. Though in reality no objects except animals have the distinction of sex. yet 
in figurative language inanimate objects are often regarded as distinguished by 
sex. Thus we say of the sun, ''He is shining ;" or of the moon, "She is beautiful." 

6. When inanimate objects are represented as having sex the names of those 
which are distinguished for strength, power, or other qualities of the male m 
regarded as masculine ; and the names of those distinguished for beauty, loveli- 
ness, or other feminine qualities are considered as feminine. Thus, the Mm, death, 
time, winter, war, anger, are masculine; and the moon, earth, nature, virtue, fpring, 
peace, health, are feminine. 

7. A collective noun, when used properly as such, that is, when it denotes a 
single collection of objects regarded as one body, is neuter ; as, " The army destroyed 
every thing in Us course." 

When nouns of the common gender are I When' inanimate objects ait 
used can we determine whether males as having sex what nouns are of the 
or females are referred t<>? masculine gender? 

How do we speak of animals whose sex l What nouni :vof the fem- 

is unknown or unnecessary to be re- inine gender? 
garded? | Of what gender are collective nouns? 



NOUNS. 35 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name three nouns of the masculine gender. Three of the femi n ine gender. 
Three of the neuter gender. 

2. Tell the gender of each of the following nouns : 

Hero, countess, book, toy, ladies, paper, gold, women, lord, master, 
candle, scissors, lamp, fire, tongs, Jewess, priestess, goose, watch, clock, 
wisdom, whiteness, cousin, parent. 

CASE. 
Case is that property of nouns which denotes their relation 
to other words. 

There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the 



Nominative Case. 
When a noun is the subject of a verb it is in the Nomi- 
native Case; as, "John runs;" "The dog was killed." 

Remarks.— 1. The subject of a verb is that of which something is affirmed. 
It may usually be known by its forming the answer to the question made by put- 
ting who or what before the verb. Thus, if we ask, " Who runs ?" the answer will 
be, "John;" if we ask, " What was killed ?" the answer will be, " The dog." John 
and dog, then, are in the nominative case. 

2. There are a great many different relations ; but there are only three forms. 
Therefore the same form must sometimes be employed to express more than one 
relation. Nominative means naming, and when we merely name an object we put 
the name in the nominative or naming case. And every relation not expressed 
by one of the other cases is expressed by the nominative case. Thus the noun is 
in the nominative case when it is independent of any verb ; as, "Jane, Mary 
has come. ' 

EXERCISES. 
1. Name the nouns in the nominative case. (The words in italics are verbs) : 

Peter whistles. Jane sings. Mary sings sweetly. Birds fly in the 
air. The horse gallops. Whales swim in the sea. Josephine is beau- 
tiful. Benjamin went to town. Charles is attentive. The traveler 
killed the robber. George saw a deer. The snake bit the dog. The 
elephant is large. The robber was killed by the traveler. Solomon 
excels Joseph. 

2. Put a noun in the nominative case in each of the following blanks : 

.... learns rapidly saw the boy is here bas read 

the book deserves praise go to school went home. 

What is case ? How many cases ? I How may it usually be known ? 

When is a noun in the nominative case? When is a noun said to be in the nomi- 

What is the subject of a verb? I native case independent? 



36 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Possessive Case. 

When a noun denotes the relation of property or possession it 
is in the Possessive Case; as, "John's hat." 

The possessive case in the singular number is usually formed l»y 
adding s preceded by an apostrophe ( ' ) to the nominative; as, William, 
William's; boy, boy's. 

When the nominative plural ends in s the possessive is formed by 
adding the apostrophe only; as, boys, boys'. 

When plural nouns do not end in s they form their possessive by 
taking both the apostrophe and the s; as, "Men's hats." 

Remark.— When the nominative singular and nominative plural aiv alike 
some place the apostrophe after the s in the possessive plural, to distinguish it 
from the possessive singular; as, singular, deer's; plural, deers'. 

When the nominative ends with the sound of s or z the s of the 
possessive case is sometimes omitted, especially if the next word begins 
with the sound of s or z; as, Archimedes' screw; for conscience' sake; 
Jesus' name. 

Remarks.— 1. On this subject no definite rule can be given. If the addition 
of s would not produce a decidedly disagreeable sound, the regular form should 
be used; as, "James's stories ;" "Chambers's Journal;" " The witness's oath." 

2. It is often better to use the objective with of; as, " The works of Euripides." 
instead of "Euripides's works." 

3. The ancient ending of the possessive case was es or is; as, "The l:niglitcs 
tale"— Chaucer; " My fadris house "—Wicklif. The apostrophe, which word lit- 
erally means a turning away, marks the turning away or removal of the e or i. 

In compound words the sign of the possessive case is placed at the 
end; as, "His father-in-law's horse;" '• The lenight-er rant's adventure." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name six nouns in the possessive case. 
2. Write or spell the possessive case of each of the following words : 
Man, boy, girl, women, men, boys, girls, John, James, Thomas, ox, 
beauty, master, mistress, councilman, alderman, aldermen, ladies. 

Objective Case. 
When a noun is the object of a transitive verb in the active 
voice or of a preposition it is in the Objective Case; as, 
"John struck William-" "Thomas jumped over the log." 



When is a noun in the possessive case? 

How is the possessive case formed in the 

singular? How in th<- plural" 



When is the possessive singular formed 
by adding the apostrophe alone to the 
nominative? 

Where is the sign of the possessive case 
placed in compound words? 

When is a noun in the objective case? 



nouns. 37 

Here William is the object of the verb struck; and log is the object 
of the preposition over. 

Remarks.— 1. The object may generally be known by its forming the answer 
to the question made by putting whom or what after the verb or preposition. Thus, 
"John struck whom?" Answer: William. " Thomas jumped over what ?" An- 
swer: The log. 

2. The word object in the definition has not the same meaning that it has when 
we say, "A noun is the name of an object." It denotes that to which the action 
or relation is directed. 

3. The noun is in the objective case when me, us, him, or them will make sense 
in its place. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the nouns in the objective case. (The transitive verbs are in capital 
letters, and the prepositions in italics ) : 

The snake bit the dog. The wolf bit the horse. John threw a 
stone. The musician broke his violin. Peter saw his shadow. Boys 
love sport. Mary threw the book into the fire. Irene cracked a 
walnut with a hammer. George struck a lamp -post with his fist. 
Edward went from Louisville to New Orleans. Birds fly in the air. 
Peter invited Theodore. Edmund saw a rabbit. The frost injured 
the corn. Annie cut an apple. The hurricane destroyed the build- 
ing. The fox ran through the thicket. Julius admired the brightness 
of the sun. Bollo ran up the steps into the house, and fell over a chair 
into a tub of water. The horses draw the wagon. 

2. Change the following nouns in the possessive case to nouns in the objective 
case preceded by of: 

John's book. The sun's splendor. Beauty's power. The comet's 
tail. Slavery's chains. God's goodness. Eor neatness' sake. 

PEKSOK 
Person is that property of nouns which denotes relation 
to the act of speaking. 

Remarks.— 1. Person is regarded in grammar because the form of the verb 
varies with the person of the subject ; as, "I icalk, thou walkest, he walks." 

2. As I (plural we) is the only word that requires a verb of the first person, 
and thou (plural you) is the only word that requires a verb of the second person, it 
is not necessary to mention person in connection with any other words, except 
when the names of objects spoken of are the subjects of verbs. 

A name applied by the speaker to himself is said to be of 
the first person; as, "J saw it;" "I make this proclamation;" 
"We are sinful." 

How may the object generally be known? I When is a noun (pronoun) said to be of 
Define person. | the first person ? 



38 



ETYMOLOGY. 



A name applied to the object addressed is said to be of the 
second person; as, "TIwu hast given me life;" " You should 
obey your parents." 

A noun denoting the object spoken of is of the third 
person; as, "John saw it;" "Men are sinful;" "Theodore 
gave me my knife." 

Except pronouns, all words that are the subjects of verbs are of the 
third person. 

EXERCISES. 
Tell the person of each of the following nouns: 

I run. Thou runnest. Henry runs. We run. You run. They 
run. I am here. Thou art here. Tire burns. Rain falls. The snow 
melts. He swims. She sings. I ran down the hill. We come now. 
I see the moon. You see the moon. We see the moon. The sun sets. 
The moon rises. Andrew sees the moon. I certify. John Thomson 
certifies. I come. He comes. Thou comest. Thou art a jewel, 
is a jewel. He labors diligently. The squirrel ran up the tree. The 
boys went away. The girls remained. The deer sprang up. The 
dogs pursued. 

Thou hast deceived me. When will you come? Where has the 
boy been? I am anxious to go. Thomas is anxious to stay. Harriet 
can not go. Thou hast spoken truly. We can live here happily. The 
boys have gone. Theodore did not come. We traveled rapidly. 



DECLENSION. 
Declension is the regular arrangement of a noun accord- 
ing to its numbers and cases. 

EXAMPLES. 





1. Boy. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nominative, 


boy; 


boys ; 


Possessive, . 


boy's; 


boys'; 


Objective, . . 


boy. 

2. Lady. 


boys. 


Nominative, 


lady; 


ladies; 


Possessive, . 


lady's; 


ladies' ; 


Objective, . . 


lady. 


ladies. 



*. Man. 

singular. 
Nominative, man ; 
Posscssirr } . man's; 
Objective, . . man. 

4. Fox. 

Nominative, fox; 
Possessive, . fox's; 
Objective, . . f<>x. 



PLURAL. 

men ; 
men's; 

men. 
foxes; 

foxeS. 



When is a noun (pronoun) said to be of I 

the Becond person? 
When of the third ? 



What is declension ? 
Decline boy. Lodjy, 
Decline man. Fox. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 39 

PARSING. 
To Parse a word is to tell its properties and office. 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the nouns in the following exercises. (The words in italics are preposi- 
tions, and those in capitals are transitive verbs): 

Peter drove the horse from John's barn. Columbus discovered 
America. The house was consumed by fire. The rain destroyed the 
crop. Jonathan has a book. The elephant has tusks. The colt ran 
away from Joseph. Mary loves birds. The gardener cultivates 
flowers. Rain is refreshing to the plants. The cow kicked the dog. 
Thomas sits above Robert. Dot your i's and cross your t's. Coffee is 
spelled with two f ' s and with two e's. 

MODEL. 
"Peter drove the horse from John's barn" 

Peter is a noun — the name of an object; proper noun — the name of 
an individual object; in the singular number — it denotes but one object; 
masculine gender — it denotes a male; third person — the name of an 
object spoken of; in the nominative case — the subject of the verb drove. 

Rule. — The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Horse is a noun, etc. ; common noun — a name that may be applied 
to each one of several objects forming a class; singular number; 
masculine gender; in the objective case — the object of the transitive 
verb drove. 

Rule.— The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

John's is a noun, etc. ; in the possessive case — it denotes the relation 
of possession ; it limits the meaning of the noun barn. 

Rule.— A noun in the possessive case modifies another noun. 

Barn is a noun, etc.; in the objective case — the object of the preposi- 
tion from. 

Rule.— The object of a preposition must be in the objective case. 

Note.— It is not necessary to keep the pupil constantly repeating the defini- 
tions. When he becomes perfectly familiar with the subject, let him tell the 
gender, etc., without giving the reason. 

"Coffee is spelled with tioo /'s." 
F's is a noun — the name of an object; common noun, etc.; plural 
number, etc. 

What is parsing? | How do you parse a noun? 



40 



ETYMOLOGY. 



ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word which qualifies or limits the appli- 
cation of a noun; as, "A good boy, a sweet apple, oiw book, 

this man." 

Remark. — The word adjective signifies adding or added; and this part of 
speech is so called because it adds a quality or limitation to the meaning of a 
noun, or because it is added to a noun. 

Note. — The word adjective is generally said to signify added to; but words 
ending in ive have usually an active sense. Thus, destructive signifies not destroyed, 
but destroying ; corrosive signifies not corroded, but corroding. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

There are two classes of adjectives ; qiurtifying adjectives and 
limiting adjectives. 

A Qualifying Adjective expresses some quality which 
belongs to the object; as, "A bad road, a ripe nut, a vi<>I>nt 
storm." 

Remarks. — 1. Qualifying adjectives not only express qualities belonging to 
the object, but at the same time limit the application of the noun. Thus, the 
expression, "a red apple," does not apply to so many objects as the word apple 
does, since there are not so many red apples as there are apples. The more 
adjectives we add to a noun, the fewer objects wc include. The expression, "a 
sweet, mellow, red apple," comprehends more qualities than "a red apple," but 
does not extend to so many objects. 

2. This is what grammarians mean when they say that adjectives increase the 
comprehension, but decrease the extension of nouns. Limiting adjectives affect only 
the extension. 

Ltmittng Adjectives do not express any quality belonging 
to the object, but merely limit the application of the noun; as, 
"One book," "the jirst man," "that thing," "forty thieves." 

Those limiting adjectives which are used in counting and numbering 
are called numeral adjectives; as, one, in-,,, three, etc.; firsts ft 
third, etc. 

Adjectives derived from proper names are sometimes called proper 
adjectiocs; as, American, from America, 

Remarks.— 1. The limiting adjeetives, rarh. every, either, neither, former, latter, 
some, other, any, one, all, such, none, this, that, and the plural forms, them, flkOK, Me 
sometimes improperly called adjective pronouns. 



What is an adjective? 
What docs tin- word ailjrrfivr sitrnif\ ? 
How many classes of adjectives? 
What do qualifying adjectives express'. 
What is a limiting adjective ? 



What arc numeral adj., • 
What arc proper adjecth 
What limiting adjectives arc sometimes 

called adjective pronouns? 
Why arc they so called n 



ADJECTIVES. 41 

2. The reason given for this is that they sometimes belong to nouns, like 
adjectives, and at other times stand for nouns, like pronouns. Thus, in this sen- 
tence, "Each man has his faults," each limits the meaning of the noun man; but if 
man is omitted, it is said that each stands for man; as, "Each has his faults." 

3. But the omission of the noun can not change these adjectives to pronouns. 
Other adjectives might be called pronouns on the same grounds. Thus, good might 
be called a pronoun in this sentence, "The good may err," because persons is 
omitted. 

4. The limiting adjective what is sometimes called an interrogative pronoun, 
when it is used in asking questions; as, "What man is that?" 

5. This and that are the only adjectives which have a different form before 
plural nouns. 

6. None is used for no when the noun is omitted ; when no is used the noun is 
always expressed. Thus, "No person is so deaf as he that will not hear ;" "None is 
so deaf as he that will not hear." None, in this case, should be parsed as belonging 
to person understood. This word was formerly used when the noun was expressed ; 
" We shall have none end."— Bacon. None is used when the noun comes first; as, 
" Friend there was none to help him." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Join a qualifying adjective to each of the following nouns: 
Table, chair, hat, cap, book, inkstand, pen, hand, hair, knife, watch, 
window, boy, girl, woman, man, bird, cow, horse, dog, cat, coat, shoe. 

2. Join a limiting adjective to each of the following: 
Pen, gun, bullets, box, watch, table, birds, men, hand, gate, foot, 
feather. 

3. Join one qualifying and one limiting adjective to each of the following : 
Apple, pear, peach, road, street, town, bottle, fire, broom, boxes, ball. 

4. Join a noun to each of the following adjectives : 
Good, bad, fair, one, this, that, what, benevolent, happy, rich, poor, 
weak-minded, loving, profitable, American, English, Scotch, Irish. 
5. Which of the preceding are qualifying and which limiting adjectives? 

6. What nouns do the adjectives in the following sentences qualify or limit ? 
You may take this book, and I will take that. Anne is a good, but 
Jane is a bad girl. What boy is that ? Kound O and crooked S. 

Note. — Nouns become adjectives when used to qualify other nouns; as, "A 
gold cup;" "Boston crackers;" "the fire king;" "Kentucky girls." 

7. Use the following nouns in such a way as to make them adjectives : 
Silver, ocean, iron, mountain, corn, tin, rose, hemp, oak, cloth, coat, 
taper, leather, muslin, New York. 

What adjective is sometimes called an I What adjectives change their forms be- 

interrogative pronoun? fore plural nouns? 

What is said of the use of none and no? \ When do nouns become adjectives? 

4 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
The Comparison of an Adjective is a statement of its 

different forms. 

This is called comparison because the object of changing 
the forms is to express comparison. 

There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the 
comparative, and the superlative. 

The Positive Degree .simply expresses the quality ; as, 
"A sweet apple." 

The Comparative Degree is the form employed when the 
quality is represented as belonging to one of two objects in a 
higher degree than to the other; as, "This apple is no 
than that." 

The Superlative Degree is the form employed when the 
quality is represented as belonging to one of several objects in 
a higher degree than to any of the rest; as, ' 4 This apple is 
the sweetest of all." "The rose is the faired of flowers." 

Remarks. — 1. The comparison may be made between classes of objects : as, 
"These apples are sweeter than (hose." 

2. The positive degree implies comparison, though the comparison is not for- 
mally expressed. "Mr. Smith is a tall man" implies a comparison with other 
men; for Mr. Smith would not be called a tall man if he did not exceed in stature 
the generality of men. 

3. The office of the comparative and superlative is not to express a higher 
degree of the quality than the positive; the latter may express a higher d< 
than either <>f the others. A rat is not a largr animal, but it is larger than a m 

The degrees, though related in form, have no logical relation to each other. 
When we say, " Mr. Smith is a ('dl man," we compare Mr. Smith with men in gen- 
eral; when we say, "Mr. Smith is talhr than Mr. Jones," we compare two men, 
and assert that the former has more of the quality than the latter has, without 
referring to the absolute tall: when we say, "Mr. Smith is the taU>.<t«i the three 
men," we compare Mr. Smith with two other men in the same way. 

•1. When the comparative is used, a comparison is made between the same 
quality, usually as it exists in different objects; but sometimes the compari* 
made between two degrees of the quality in the name object at different tta 
in different circumstances; as, " He is uriner to-day than lie was yesterday;" " Ib- 
is happier at home than tie is abroad." 

."». Sometimes tin- comparison is made between the degree of the quality which 
really exists and that which is supposed or said to exisl : as, " He is uter than he 

is suppose,! (,, }„,." 



What is cm pan -on" i Define the comparative. The superlative. 

low many degrees •.' Wna1 is th( . n . nmrk ftboul tll , 

Define the positive degree. | the comparative and superlative T 



ADJECTIVES. * 43 

6. The comparison is sometimes made between two degrees of different quali- 
ties of the same object ; as, " He is more learned than wise ;" that is, " His learning 
is greater than his wisdom." 

Formation of the Comparative and Superlative. 
The comparative is regularly formed by adding er, and the 
superlative by adding est, to the positive ; as, 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

Sweet, . . sweeter, . . sweetest. Red, . . . redder, . . . reddest. 

Wise, . . wiser, . . . wisest. Dry, . . . drier, .... driest. 

(See General Rules for Spelling, Hi, v, and ml) 

The same meaning is expressed by prefixing the adverbs more and 
most; as, sweet, more sweet, most sweet. 

This is the usual way when the adjectives consist of more than one 
syllable ; as, graceful, more graceful, most graceful. 

But words of two syllables, ending in y, or in le after a mute, or 
accented on the last syllable, may take the terminations er and est; as, 
happy, happier, happiest; able, abler, ablest; polite, politer, p>olitest. 

Some other adjectives of two syllables sometimes take er and est; 
as, handsome, handsomer, handsomest; common, commoner, commonest. 

The following adjectives are compared in an irregular manner: 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

Good, . . . better, . . . best. Much, . . . more, .... most. 

Bad, .... worse, . . . worst. Many, . . . more, .... most. 

Evil or ill, worse, . . . worst. Ear, .... farther, . . farthest. 

Little, . . . less, .... least. (Fore,) . . . further, . . furthest. 

Remarks. — 1. Lesser is sometimes used as the comparative of little; as, "The 
Lesser Asia." 

2. Near and late have, besides the regular forms of the superlative, next and last. 

3. Old has, in addition to the regular comparative and superlative, elder and 
eldest. These are formed from eld, which is now obsolete. 

4. The superlative is sometimes formed by adding most to the positive or com- 
parative ; as, inmost or innermost; hindmost or hinderrnost; topmost. 

5. A slight degree of quality is expressed by suffixing ish; as, sweet, siveetish. 

6. The adverbs less and least are sometimes used with the adjective, when the 
object is represented as having a lower degree of the quality than belongs to the 
object or objects with which it is compared; as, "This apple is less sweet than 
that." 



When the comparative is used is the 
comparison always made between two 
degrees of the same quality in differ- 
ent objects ? 

How are the comparative and snperla- 



What is the usual way when adjectives 
consist of more than one syllable? 

What adjectives of two syllables are com- 
pared by adding < r and est? 

Compare near. Old. 



tive regularly formed? I What is said of the superlative in most* 

In what other way may the same change What is said of the termination ish f 

in meaning be expressed? j When are less and least joined with the 

Compare good, bad, etc. I adjective? 



44 



ETYMOLOGY. 



7. The adverbs more and most, less and least, should not be parsed as part of the 
adjective. In more beautiful, for instance, more is an adverb modifying beautiful. 

8. Most adjectives which denote qualities that can not exist in different 
degrees are not compared; as, round, square, two-handed, almighty. 

9. But many adjectives which denote invariable qualities are by the best 
writers used in the comparative and the superlative, or what is equivalent to 
these forms; as, "The sight is the most perfect of all our senses." — Addison. By 
this is meant that the sight approaches nearer to perfection than any othea 
does. Of the same kind are just, upright, true, honest, complete, accurate, correct, 
regular, good, white, safe. 

10. The best writers and speakers in the language are in the habit of using 
such expressions as more perfect. It would be improper to say that one thing is 
perfect, and another more perfect than that ; but when we say that one thing is 
more perfect than another we do not mean that either is perfect, but merely that 
one approaches nearer to perfection than the other. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the comparative and superlative of each of the following adjectives : 
Red, rich, warm, hot, ample, happy, ripe, able, discreet, learned, 
good, high, just, near, little. 

2. In what degree is each of the following adjectives? 
Wisest, better, good, politest, happy, virtuous, greater, less, richest, 
apter, noble, noblest. 

3. Correct the following: 

Beautifuler, magnanimouser, blissfuler, agreeabler, amusingest, vir- 
tuousest. 

ARTICLES. 

The limiting adjectives an or a and the are sometimes 
called Articles. 

The is called the definite, and an or a the indefinite article. 

When the definite article is used we refer to some particular object, 
or class of objects, either before spoken of or pointed out in 
other way. 

When the indefinite article is used we refer to scmir <■,,■ of ■ class 
but to no particular one. 

The word book is applied to each one of a whole class of <>1 
I say, "Give me a book," I call for any one of these objects; if I Bay, 
"Give me the book," I ask lor some particular book. 

A is used before words beginning with consonant-sounds; an before 
those beginning with vowel-sounds; as. a tree, an apple. 



What adjectives are not compared? 
What is said of more p, rfn-t. etc ? 
What words are called articles? 
Which is the definite article ? 



Which is the Indefinite article? 
When is the definite article ua 
When is the indefinite article 
before what words Is a used? Ani 



ARTICLES. 45 

Remark. — The indefinite article originally meant one. An was formerly em- 
ployed much more frequently than it is now ; n is not added to a to form an, but 
it is dropped from an to make a. 

When the noun is omitted one is used instead of an or a, and that and those 
instead of the; as, " If this is a sin, that is one," that is, a sin; " The life of Howard 
was that of a philanthropist," that is, the life of a philanthropist. 

In some words beginning with h, this letter is silent, and the first 
sound being a .vowel-sound, an is used, not a ; as, an hour. 

Some words whose first letter is a vowel commence with a consonant- 
sound, and consequently a, not an, is used before them; as, a university, 
a ewe, a eunuch, many a one. University, ewe, and eunuch are pronounced 
as if they commenced with y, and one is pronounced wun. 

An is used before words beginning with h not silent, if the accent is 
on the second syllable ; as, an heroic action, an historical romance. 

Remark.— The sound of h is weaker, that is, the breath is less forcibly emitted, 
when the word is accented on the second syllable than when the accent is on the 
first. The word historical seems almost to begin with a vowel-sound. 

A word whose primary accent is on the third or fourth syllable has 
a secondary accent on the first, and a is used before such word if it 
begins with h; as, "A hypothetical case." 

EXERCISES. 
Correct whatever errors occur in the following: 
A apple. An peach. An hand. An hireling. A hour. Many an 
one. An union. An European. An human being. A army. An 
heart. A honorable man. A article. A adjective. An yeoman. A 
umpire. An useful man. An unit. A historical account. An hero. 
An history. A heroic action. A Hibernian tale. An university. A 
herbarium. An union. A hereditary title. A heretical opinion. An 
unicorn. A hexameter. A hosanna. An Unitarian. An universal 
belief. An uniform appearance. An useless labor. An usurer. 

The is used with nouns either in the singular or the plural number; 
as, the book; the books. 

An or a is used with nouns in the singular number only. We can 
not say a books. 

Remark.—^, seems to belong to plural nouns in such expressions as the fol- 
lowing: "A dozen apples;" "A hundred books;" "A thousand men;" "A great 
many men." 

But a does not belong to apples, books, and men in the preceding examples, but 
to dozen, hundred, and many, which in such cases are collective nouns in the sin- 
Why is an used before hour? I The is used with nouns of what num- 
Why is o used before university f ber ? 

When is an used before words' beginning \A or an is used with nouns of what 
with h not silent ? | number? 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

gular number. There is an ellipsis of the preposition of; thus, a dozen of men, a 
hundred of men, a great many of men, that is, a great company of men. Here the 
adjective great, as well as a, belongs to the noun many. 

When a is used with numbers greater than thousands of must be ex] 
as, a million of men. So, in some instances, with a great many; as, "A great many 
Of those Looks are worthless;"' "A great many of his followers deserted him." 

That hundred, thousand, etc., are nouns is evident : they may be used in the 
plural number; as, "Hundred* of men were slain in that battle." 

The word many is very often used by old English writers as a noun signifying 
company, retinue, etc. Thus, "And eke with him cometh his meinU " [many].— 
Chaucer. Spenser applies the word to three persons in the following pi 
" This fair many were compeld at last." Shakespeare uses a many without great ; 
thus » "For yet a many of your horsemen peer 

And gallop o'er the field."— Henry V. 
Many is a noun in such expressions as the following: " The will of the many and 
their interests must very often differ." — Burke. 

A is used with a plural noun when the adjective feiv interval 
a few books. 

Remark. — This construction probably had its origin in an ellipsis. Ane few 
menye, a few vienye (that is, a small number or company), are expressions used by 
ancient authors. When many came to be generally used as an adjective 0] 
in meaning to few, the two words sounded harshly together, and many with the 
preposition following it was dropped. In this manner a few many of the books was 
changed to a few books. 

An or a often comes between many and a singular noun ; as, 

"When the merry bells ring round, 
And the jocund rebecks sound 
To many a youth and many a maid 
Dancing in the checkered shade." — Milton. 
Note.— Home Tooke considers a in such instances to be a corruption of of. 
Thus, many of maid*, by corrupting the sound of of, as is frequently done, would 
become many a maids; and a being mistaken for the article, the noun would 
afterward be put in the singular. 

This form may, however, have arisen from transposing a many, tints changing 
a many to many a; the noun following a would naturally be made singular. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

(The words in italics are prepositions; those in large capitals are transitive 
verbs, and those in small capitals are intransitive verbs. Than is a conjunction.) 

That boy RODE the vicious horse. A good man LOVES all men. 
Robert GOT some sour apples. William HAS live white marbles. 
Jonathan SHOT some fat birds. 

Diligent boys RECEIVE praise. The rose is the faired 
flowers. This room is warmer than that. John HAS the wannest 
room. The sun is hotter than any fire is. These apples auk sweeter 
than those. Bayardo is the swiftest horse of the three. 



What is said of a with the adjective fewt | Give number of noun following many a. 



PASSING EXEECISES. 47 

The bright sun shines. This day is lovely. HEAE the roaring 
wind. The rude boy HUET the old man. The refreshing shower 
EEVIVED the brown grass. 

MODEL. 
"That boy rode the vicious horse." 

That is a limiting adjective — it limits the application of a noun; it 
belongs to the noun boy. 

Rule. — Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

Boy is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, in the nominative case — subject of the verb rode. 

Rule. — The subject of a finite verb must be in tbe nominative case. 

The is a limiting adjective — it limits the application of a noun; it 
belongs to the noun horse. 

Rule.— Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

Vicious is a qualifying adjective — it expresses a quality belonging to 
an object; it belongs to the noun horse. 

Rule.— Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

Horse is a noun, etc. ; in the objective case — the object of the transi- 
tive verb rode. 

Rule. — The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

"The rose is the fairest of all flowers." 

Fairest is a qualifying adjective — it expresses a quality which belongs 

to an object; in the superlative degree — the quality is represented as 

, belonging to one of several objects in a higher degree than to any of 

the rest; positive, fair, comparative, fairer, superlative, fair est; it belongs 

to flower understood. 

Rule. — Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 
"Robert got some sour apples." 

Some is a limiting adjective — it limits the application of a noun; it 
belongs to the noun apples. 

Rule.— Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

Sour is a qualifying adjective — it expresses a quality belonging to an 
object; it belongs to the noun apples. 

Rule.— Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

"Bayardo is the swiftest horse of the three." 

Three is a limiting adjective — it limits the application of a noun; it 
belongs to the noun horses understood. 

Rule.— Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 

"This room is warmer than thai" 

Warmer is a qualifying adjective, etc.; in the comparative degree — 
the quality is represented as belonging to one of two objects in a higher 
degree than to the other, etc. ; it belongs to the noun room understood. 

Rule.— Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a relational noun. 

The relation may be relation to the act of speaking or 
relation to the idea expressed by some other word. 

" I see you." Here / is a noun denoting the relation which the doer 
of the act has to the speaking; it denotes that the person that 
is speaking. You denotes the relation which the object acted upon has 
to the person spoken to; it denotes that the person seen is spoken to. 

" I see him." Here him denotes that the object acted upon is 
spoken of. 

" The man who met us." Here who denotes a relation to the idea 
expressed by man. 

Note. — It is strange how an error may pass from age to age and be without 
question received as an elementary truth, though only a little thought may be 
sufficient to detect the error. In the former editions of this work the author pre- 
sented that view of the pronoun which had been impressed on his mind in child- 
hood and confirmed by every work he had seen that mentioned the subject. It is 
surprising that some of his own "remarks" did not lead him to a correct idea of 
the pronoun. In those " remarks " he says, " To avoid the repetition of nouns is 
not the only office of pronouns, i" is a word used by the person speaking t< > desig- 
nate himself, but does not stand for his name or imply any previous mention of 
himself. So thou or you is used to designate the person addressed, and is used 
whether ice know the name of the person or not." 

Mulligan says, "The pronouns, on the contrary, are only the reprttatiOtiva of 
nouns, not the direct signs of things." — Grammatical Structure of the English Lan- 
guage, p. 33. This expresses in the clearest manner the common idea of the pro- 
noun. Any person who can divest himself of his preconceived notion will require 
only a short examination to see that this doctrine is incorrect. 

An old man finding a rude boy on one of his apple-trees says, "I Bee you." 
He docs not know the name of the boy, and the boy does not know the name of 
the man; and yet the boy perfectly understands that I denotes a person sp ea king . 
This idea /denotes as clearly as any other noun in the language denotes an Idea. 
The word has nothing to do with the name; it has no reference whatever to the 
name. If the old man had no name, he would have been just as well understood. 
Similar remarks might be made concerning you as denoting the person tpoken to. 
Von expresses this relation and has no reference whatever to any other noun. It 
expresses the intended idea as completely as any other noun expresses the In- 
tended idea. In a dark night a man hears a voice cry from a pit, " Help me out," 

What is a pronoun? What relations may pronouns . . 



PRONOUNS. 49 

and he immediately knows that there is a person in the pit. What has conveyed 
this idea? The word me. The hearer does not stop to ask what word this me rep- 
resents. He knows that if he helps any thing out of the pit, it is a person, not the 
representative of a word. When Shylock says, " Shylock is my name," he does 
not mean " Shylock is Shylock's name," hut he means "Shylock is the name of 
the person speaking to you." My has nothing to do with the name; the same 
word would have been used if some one had said, " Shylock is not my name." 

The personal pronouns of the third person are also the " direct signs of things," 
not the " representatives of nouns.' 1 In this sentence, " He that runs may read," 
the idea is expressed as independently as it would he expressed by " The person 
that runs may read." He no more stands for another word than person stands for 
another word. When Lear on seeing Kent in the stocks exclaims, " Death on my 
state ! wherefore should lie sit here?" he expresses the idea as completely as if he 
had said, " Wherefore should this man sit here ?" "He that gathereth in summer 
is wise." We may substitute the person for he, and is it not as correct to say that 
the person represents he as that lie represents the person? " They say that house is 
haunted." If we substitute people for they, is people & pro-pronoun? 

It may be shown that even when an object has been previously mentioned 
the pronoun refers not to the word, but to the object itself. " You should not have 
scolded James ; he did not deserve it." Here he does not denote the word James; 
it denotes the person himself. "You should not have scolded James ; the boy did 
not deserve it." The context shows that the boy denotes James. As used-in these 
two sentences the boy and he are synonymous. They each denote the person, not 
the word. In the former sentence he is employed, not because of any grammat- 
ical dependence upon the word James, but because the sense demands he, and she 
or it would make nonsense. A speaker would avoid saying, "You should not 
have scolded James ; she did not deserve it," for the same reason that he would 
avoid saying, "You should not have scolded James ; the girl did not deserve it." 

CLASSES OF PBONOUNS. 
Pronouns may be divided into four classes ; personal, relative, 
interrogative, and indefinite. 

Personal Pronouns. 
The pronouns I, thou, he, she, and it, in their various cases 
and numbers are called Personal Pronouns; because I is 
always of the first person, thou of the second, and he, site, and 
it of the third. They are thus declined : 

First Person. Second Person, 

singular. plural. singular. plural. 

Nom.l; we; Nom. thou; ye or you; 

Poss. my or mine; our or ours; Poss. thy or thine; your or yours; 

Obj. me. us. Obj. thee. you. 

Into how many classes are pronouns I What words are called personal pro- 
divided ? nouns ? Why are they so called ? 
Name them. I Decline I. Thou. 



50 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Third Person — Masculine. Third Person — Feminine. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. he; they; Nom. she; they; 

Poss. his; their or theirs ; Poss. her or hers ; their or theirs; 

Obj. him. them. Obj. her. them. 

Third Person — Neuter. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nominative, it; Nominative, they; 

Possessive, . its ; Possessive, . their or theirs ; 

Objective, . . it. Objective, . . them. 

Remarks.— 1. Where there are two forms of the possessive case one of them 
is used when the name of the thing possessed is expressed, the other when it is 
omitted. Thus, " That is your book, but this is mine;" " This is mj/book, but that 
is yours." 

2. Mine and Mine were formerly used before a vowel or silent h; as, "Blot out 
all mine iniquities." They are still so used in the solemn style. 

3. These words, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, are by some said to stand 
both for the name of the possessor and of the thing possessed. This is not correct 
The name of the thing possessed is omitted, because it has been previously ex- 
pressed. The nature of the pronoun may be understood by putting a noun in its 
place. Thus, " This is my book, but that is John's." It would be as correct to say 
that John's in this sentence stands for both John's and book, as to say that yomt in 
the preceding paragraph stands for both your and book. 

4. In the third person there is a different pronoun for each gender in the sin- 
gular number ; but in the first and second the same pronouns are used, whatever 
may be the gender. The sex of the speaker and the person addrr&rd is supposed to 
be known from their being present and from other circumstances. 

5. Originally thou was the only pronoun used in addressing a single person : 
but from flattery or politeness you began to be used in such cases, and it has now 
entirely usurped the place of thou except in the solemn style. The Friends, or 
Quakers, still use thou in common discourse. 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

Compound Personal Pronouns are pronouns formed by 
adding self, plural selves, to the simple personal pronouns. 

The compound personal pronouns are myself, ourself, our- 
selves; thyself, yourself, yourselves; himself, herself, itself, thcn).<> 

These pronouns are used for the sake of emphasis or distinction; or 
to show that an effect is reflected, or thrown back, upon its cause; as, 
"He himself did it;" "He hurt himself;" " He is unjust to /- 

They have no possessive case, and the objective is the same as the 
nominative. 



Decline he—shr—it. 

How are the two forms of the possessive 

case \isod ? 
Why is there no distinct form for each 

gender in pronouns of the first and 

second persons? 



Name them. 

How are they used? 

How many cases have they? 



PRONOUNS. 51 

Remarks.— 1. Self is supposed to have been originally an adjective. It was 
joined by the Anglo-Saxons to nouns and pronouns in every case. Thus they 
said what would be equivalent to Iself, myself, meself; except that self had a partic- 
ular termination for each case, as other adjectives had. The old English writers 
use it as an adjective ; thus, Chaucer says, " The self day," that is, the same day; 
and Shakespeare says, " One self king." It afterward came to be used as a noun ; 
as, " Oft whip her dainty self.''' — Spenser. 

2. When an adjective comes between the pronoun and self the possessive case 
of the noun is used ; as, his own self 

3. When the plural form of the first and second persons is used for the singular, 
self remains in the singular; as, "John, you injure yourself" "Ourself will swift- 
ness to your nerves impart." — Pope. 

4. These pronouns are seldom used in the nominative case, except when 
annexed to simple pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns. 

A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that makes a close 

connection of its proposition with a preceding noun; as, 

"The boy who studies will learn;" "He spoke to Horace, 

who answered rudely;" "Do not accuse James, who is absent." 

The proposition who studies is closely connected with boy, showing 
what kind of boy is meant ; in the proposition toho answered rudely, 
who marks a close connection with the noun Horace, being equivalent 
to the conjunction and and he ; in the proposition who is absent, who is 
equivalent to the conjunction because or since and he. 

The preceding noun is called the antecedent, which word 
means going before. 

Who is applied to persons ; as, "This is the man who came ;" 
" She who is amiable will be loved." 

Which is applied to the lower animals and inanimate things ; 
as, "This is the ox which destroyed the corn;" "This is the 
tree which bears the best fruit." 

That is applied to any thing to which either who or which 
may be applied; "This is the man that came;" "She that is 
amiable will be loved;" "This is the ox that destroyed the 
corn;" "This is the tree that bears the best fruit." 

What is applied to things, and is used only when the ante- 
cedent is omitted; as, "He got what he wanted," that is, the 
thing which he wanted. 

What is a relative pronoun ? I To what is who applied ? Which ? That t 

What words are called relative pronouns? | How is what used ? 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

That is a relative when who, which, or whom may be substi- 
tuted for it. 

Thus, "He that studies will learn;" " Every thing that has life is an 
animal;" "This is the man that I saw." Who may be substituted for 
that in the first example, which in the second, and whom in the third. 

What and that are used only in the nominative and objective 
cases. They have no possessive. 

Wlw and which are thus declined: 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR, PLURAL. 

Nominative, who; who; Nominative, which; which; 

Possessive, . whose; whose; Possessive, . whose; whose; 

Objective, . . whom. whom. Objective, . . which. which. 

Note.— Instead of the possessive case of whose, the objective with the prepo- 
sition of is very frequently used. Instead of " A religion whose origin is divine," 
we may say, "A religion the origin of which is divine;" though this form of 
expression is often very awkward. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In which of the following sentences is that a relative? 

He that acts wisely deserves praise. It is said that Solomon was a 
wise man. I know that man. They that are whole need not a physi- 
cian, but they that are sick. Bless them that curse you. This is the 
house that Jack built. That tree is decaying. He says that that tree is 
decaying. 

2. Name the relatives and antecedents in the following sentences: 

A king who is just makes his people happy. This is the man whom 
we met. This is the man that we met. All are pleased with children 
that behave well. This is the tiger that broke from his cage. This is a 
beautiful dog that you have. The books which I gave him are for you. 
God, by whose kindness we live, whom we worship, who created all 
things, is eternal. Alexander, who conquered the world, was conquered 
by his passions. This is the dog that bit the cat that caught the rat 
that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. He that does 
not make happy deserves not to be happy. He who steals my purse 
steals trash. The person w T ho does no good does harm. 

ANTECEDENT OMITTED. 

The antecedent is sometimes omitted; as, "Who steals my 
purse steals trash;" that is, he who, or the person who. 

When is that a relative? | Decline the relative pronouns. 

In what cases are what and that used ? | Is the antecedent always expressed ? 



PRONOUNS. 53 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the antecedents to the following relatives: 
"Who does no good does harm. Whom the Lord loveth he chasten- 
eth. There are who put their trust in riches. Who worship God shall 

"And who but wishes to invert the laws 
Of order sins against the Eternal Cause." 

The relative what is never used except when the antecedent 
is omitted ; which is used when it is expressed. In other words, 
if we express the antecedent we use which, and if we do not 
express the antecedent, we use what; as, "I saw the thing 
whwh I wished to see;" "I saw what I wished to see." 

When persons are referred to the same pronoun is employed whether 
the antecedent is expressed or omitted. Compare these expressions : 

1. I saw the person whom I wished to see ; 

2. I saw ( ) whom I wished to see. 

1. I saw the thing which I wished to see; 

2. I saw ( ) what I wished to see. 

Thus we perceive that the relative what is merely a form used when 
the antecedent is omitted. 

Note.— The relative what is generally said to he "a compound relative pro- 
noun, including hoth the antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to that which 
or the thing which.' } The word compound signifies "composed of two or more 
words," and is inapplicable to a simple word like what. Though this word should 
be admitted to he equivalent to two or more words, it is not composed of two or more 
words, as inkstand is. What is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and includes 
nothing else. 

Compare these two sentences : " I saw whom I wanted to see ;" "I saw what I 
wanted to see." 

If what in the latter is equivalent to that which, or the thing which, whom in the 
former is equivalent to him whom, or the person whom; and who in this sentence, 
" Who steals my purse steals trash," is equivalent to he who, or the man who. And, 
on the same principle, when the relative is omitted the antecedent should be repre- 
sented as equivalent to the relative and the antecedent. Thus, "I saw the man I 
wanted to see." Here man should be represented as equivalent to man whom. 

The cause of the error in respect to what is that the antecedent is never 
expressed with it. When the antecedent to who is omitted no difficulty is felt, 
because we may supply the antecedent Avithout changing the pronoun. But as 
the word what does not allow the antecedent to be expressed before it, we are apt 
to suppose that it has no antecedent implied. Those who take this view seem not 
to be aware that, if what has no antecedent expressed or implied, it does not come 
under their definition of a relative pronoun. 

If what is not a simple relative used when the antecedent is omitted, it follows 
that the antecedent may be omitted when persons are spoken of, but never when 

What relative is never used except when I When the antecedent is expressed what 
the antecedent is omitted? | relative is used instead of whatf 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

things are referred to. " I saw the thing which I wished to see." Here we can 
not omit the antecedent thing and Bay, "I .saw which I wished to Bee." Such a 
sentence as this would seem sufficient to show the nature of what. Whenever we 
omit the antecedent we at once put what in the place of which. 

The relative that was formerly used in many cases where we use what, that is, 
with the antecedent omitted. A few examples of this will help us to ascertain 
the nature of what. 

" We speak that we do know."— Eng. Bible. " I am tliat I am."— lb. " Eschew* 
that wicked is."— Gowcr. " Is it possible he should know what he is, and be that 
he is."— Shakespeare. " Gather the sequel by that went before."— ik. 
"Who had him seen imagine mote thereby 
That whylome hath of Hercules been told."— Spenser. 
In these examples that is a relative, and is exactly synonymous with what. No one 
would contend that that stands for itself and its antecedent at the same time. * 
The antecedent is omitted because it is indefinite or easily supplied. 

Some consider that in such sentences as these an adjective (demonstrative 
adjective-pronoun), and say that the relative is understood; but if we examine, 
we shall see that this is not correct. In the first quotation from the English Bible 
that is a translation of the Greek relative, and in the second it is a translation of 
the Hebrew relative. 

It is no objection to this view of the nature of what that the antecedent can 
not be expressed before it. There are many words that are used in particular cir- 
cumstances, and in no others. That is used for the, and one for a or an, when the 
nouns are omitted. If we omit the nouns we use that and erne, and if we express 
the nouns we use the and a or an. " His conduct was that of a tyrant ;" " His life 
was one of meanness." If we supply the nouns here, we can not retain that and 
one, but must change them to the and a. Thus, " His conduct was the conduct of a 
tyrant;" "His life was a life of meanness." The pronouns ours, yours, etc., are 
used only when the noun is omitted; if the noun is supplied, ours must be 
changed to our. Thus, " Your house is larger than ours;" " Your house is larger 
than our house." The relative that may be the object of a preposition coming after 
it; but if we place the preposition first, we must change that to whom or which. 
Thus, " This is the man that he spoke of ;" " This is the man of whom he spoke." 

In the Anglo-Saxon language the neuter gender of hwa [who] was not hwile 
(tvhich), but whaet {what} ; and the genitive and dative cases, whaes and wham, wen 
the same in all the genders. This shows that what originally had the same relation 
to nouns of the neuter gender that who had to those of the masculine.t 

*It seems that this assertion was rashly made. "A double relative pronoun 
represents both itself and its antecedent."— Kerl's Shorter Course. In other words, 
according to the author's definition of a pronoun, what, whoever, etc.. are used in- 
stead of themselves and instead of their antecedents. A person looking at what 
may think he is looking at ichat; but he finds that lie is only looking at something 
used instead of what. 

fiVe rxdde gt thxt hwxt David dvdc, have ye not road that what David did 
(Luc. vi. 3).— March's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, page 17'J. " Tray do not talk of aught 
what I have said."— Beaumont and Fletcher. 

The Germans use whs {what) in manv instances where we use which or that; 
"Alles was ich sah gefiel mir " (All what I saw pleased me). 

This view of what is beginning to be ado], ted by grammarians. Pr. Bullions 
quotes what is said on this subject in the former editions of " Butler's Practical 
Grammar" and says, "These remarks appear to me just, and conclusive on this 
point" — Analyt. and Prac. English Grammar, page 232. Mason In the seventeenth 
edition of his Grammar says,' "It is, however, an utter mistake to treat what as 
though it were made up of, or were equivalent to, that which. It is simply a rela- 
tive with its antecedent understood, just as when we suv, -Who steals my purse 
steals trash." It is like the German was, before which the antecedent das is com- 
monly omitted, though it may be expressed." 



PRONOUNS. 55 

Compound Relative Pronouns. 

Compound Relative Pronouns are pronouns formed by 
annexing ever or soever to the simple relative pronouns. 

They are used only when the antecedent is Omitted on 
account of its being indefinite; and in such cases they are 
more commonly used than the simple pronoun. 

Thus, "Whoever steals my purse steals trash;" "Whoever does no 
good does harm;" "Whatever purifies fortifies the heart." In the two 
first examples the antecedent is person or something equivalent; in the 
last it is thing. 

Note. — These words, like the relative what, have been said to be "equivalent 
to the relative and the antecedent." The same answer may be made here as in 
the case of what. The antecedent is omitted, and not included in the relative. 

These words are compound relatives, it is true ; but they are not compounded 
of the relative and the antecedent, but of the relative and the adverb ever. This 
adverb primarily refers to time, but also means in any degree, and is sometimes 
used as "a word of enforcement or emphasis;" as, "He studies as much as ever 
he can." In composition with the relative it is generally "a word of enforcement 
or emphasis." 

Thus, "Whoever sins will suffer." This means that anyone without excep- 
tion who sins will suffer. 

The adverb has no influence on the nature of the relative. It was anciently 
written separately. 

The impropriety of considering the compound relative equivalent to the ante- 
cedent and the relative may be seen from such sentences as the following : " I love 
whoever loves me." Here whoever is in the nominative case, and of course can 
not be the object of the verb love. The object of that verb is omitted because it is 
indefinite. 

The antecedent was sometimes expressed. Thus, "No man knoweth the 
Father save the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son will reveal him." — English 
Bible. "Blessed is he ichosoever shall not be offended hi me." — Ibid. 
"And thither also came all other creatures 
Vliatever life or motion do retaine."— Spenser. 

Remarks. — 1. Formerly so was sometimes used instead of ever or soever; as, 
"Whoso findeth me findeth life."— English Bible. 

2. What and whatever are sometimes joined to nouns as limiting adjectives ; 
the same nouns are then understood as antecedents; as, " What books he has are 
of the best kind." Here what is joined as a limiting adjective to books, which is 
the object of the verb has; books understood is the antecedent and the subject 
of the verb are. 

Another, perhaps better, view of this construction : The antecedent is some- 
times attracted from its own proposition to that of the relative, the relative being 
joined with it as an adjective ; as, " He marched with what forces he had," that 
is, he marched with the forces which he had. This is similar to what in some 
Greek grammars is called incorporation, the antecedent being in a manner incor- 
porated with the relative. 

What are compound relative pronouns ? How are they used ? 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. What and whatever ue joined as adjectives to nouns denoting persona; who 

and whoever never being used as adjectives. Thus, " WIuU man but enters dies;" 
"Heaven bestows its gifts on whatever man will use them." 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun used in asking 
a question; as, " Who was with you?" 

Here who relates to something in the mind of the speaker, who by 
employing the singular verb was shows that he expects only one person 
to be named in the answer; but two or more may be named; as, "John 
and James were with me." Who is always of the third person, and the 
number depends on what is in the mind of the speaker, not on the 
answer. 

Remark.— Winch and what when used in asking questions are generally called 
interrogative pronouns; but they are simply limiting adjectives belonging to 
nouns expressed or understood. "Which book will you have?" "What man do 
you see?" "Here are two books; which will you have?" that is, which book. 
"What do you see?" that is, what thing. 

Indefinite Pronouns. 
An Indefinite Pronoun is a pronoun employed in a 
proposition which forms the subject of a verb or the object 
of a verb or of a preposition; as, lt Who built Hie house is of 
no importance;" "I know who built the house;" "Much depends 
on who built the house." 

The subject of the verb is in the first example is the proposition 
who built the house ; the object of the verb know in the second is the 
whole proposition who built the house; the object of the preposition on 
in the third is the proposition who built the house. 

Who in such sentences is called an indefinite (not limited) pronoun, 
because it is not limited to an antecedent. 

Remarks.— 1. Who in such sentences is not an interrogative pronoun, no ques- 
tion being asked ; it is not a relative pronoun, since no antecedent can be supplied 
without changing the sense. 

2. Such propositions may be included in an interrogation ; as, " Do you know 
who built the house?" But the interrogation here is not made by the proposition in 
which who is contained, but by the other part of the sentence, do you know. 

3. Some have called who in this use of it a relative pronoun ; but no one wbO 
understands the nature of a relative pronoun will do so. "I know the man who 
is here," is quite a different thing from " I know who is here." The officer of the 
law may say, " I have discovered who stole the money," long before he can say, " I 
have discovered the man who stole the money." 

What is an interrogative pronoun ? | What is an indefinite pronoun? 



PRONOUNS. 57 

4. The limiting adjectives which and what may be used in propositions cf this 
kind; as, "I know what architect built the house;" " I know w7iic/i book you will 
take." Interrogative adverbs may also be thus used ; as, " I know where he lives ;" 
" I do not know when it was built." 

5. Such propositions are sometimes called indirect questions, on account of 
their always having some relation to questions. 

6. If the proposition to which wlio belongs does form a direct question, and an 
antecedent can not be supplied without changing the sense, it is an indefinite 
pronoun. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out in which of the following sentences who is a relative pronoun, in 
which an interrogative, and in which an indefinite pronoun : 

You know who I am. "Whom do I see ? You know the man whom 
I see. In whose house do you live? I do not wish to tell in whose 
house I live. I saw whom I wished to see. I do not ask who you are. 
By whom was that poem written ? Do you know by whom that poem 
was written? Whose horse destroyed that tree? I wish to know whose 
horse destroyed that tree. Is that the man whose horse destroyed that 
tree? 

2. Show which of the following sentences contain which and what as relative 
pronouns, which are direct questions, and which are indirect questions : 

What book are you reading? He got what he wished. Tell me 
what book you are reading. This is the book which you lost. Which 
book did you lose? See which book you have lost. Which road should 
we take? This is the road which we should take. In what character 
was he admitted? In what character he was admitted is unknown. 
That is the character in which he was admitted. Which pen do you 
prefer? I have the pen which you prefer. To what place was he 
going? He was unwilling to say to what place he was going. To 
what place he went is not known. 

ONE and OTHER. 

Among personal pronouns may be placed one and other, 
which are sometimes used as pronouns, and when so used 
always relate to objects spoken of. 

Thus, "One has to comply with the rules;" "He took the old bird 
and left the young one;" "He took one man's books and left the 
other's;" "Respect the rights of others;" "The loved one." 

Remarks. — 1. In such expressions as " One has to comply with the rules " one 
. is probably a, originally one, with person understood: "A person has," etc. Com- 
pare German der eine, the one ; so einer wie er, such a one [ person] as he. 

Among what class of pronouns are one I What do these words always relate to 
and oilier sometimes placed? I when so used? 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. Other is properly an adjective; but when the noun to which it refers is 
omitted other takes the termination which the noun would have had. Thus, in 
the sentence, " He took one man's books and left the other's [other man's]," other's 
takes the apostrophe and s properly belonging to the noun man. 

Other adjectives are sometimes, though not elegantly, used in the same way ; 
as, " Left the earth to be the wicked's den." — Bacon. " The rich man's joys increase, 
the poor's decay." — Goldsmith. 

Formerly other was used even when a plural noun was omitted; as, " Those 
other which I have in hand." — Bacon. 

3. Another is properly two words, an and other, which are without any good 
reason generally written as one word; but other has the same construction with 
an as without it; as, " Teach me to feel another's [an other person's] woe." 

4. One another and each oilier are used in a reciprocal sense ; as, " They loved 
one another;" "They hated each other." In parsing, to avoid prolixity, one another 
and each other in the preceding examples may be regarded as single words ; but in 
reality one and each, or the nouns to which they belong, are subjects of verbs 
understood, and other, or the noun to which it belongs, is in the objective after 
the same verbs. Thus, "They loved, each loved the other;" or with the nouns 
expressed, " They loved, each person loved the other person." " Birds will learn 
one [will learn] of another."— Bacon. In modern usage this would more com- 
monly be, " Birds will learn of one another." 

AS and THAN. 

As after such, same, as many, as much, etc. , has by ellipsis 
the construction of a pronoun; as, "He reads such books as 
please him;" " He has as many as he can read;" "This is as 
much lead as I can carry;" " The horse of one country is the 
same animal as the horse of another." 

After adjectives in the comparative degree than is used in 
a similar way; as, "He has more books than he can read;" 
"That is a heavier load than he can carry." 

In such cases there is an ellipsis of a proposition. Thus, " He reads 
such books as [those are which] please him;" " That is a heavier load 
than [that is heavy which] he can carry." 

But as the supplying of such ellipses would often render parsing 
tedious, these words may he regarded as taking the place of relative 
pronouns, and for the sake of distinction may be called pro-relai 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

Parse the pronouns in the following sentences. (The words in italic letters 
are prepositions, and those in capital letters are transitive verbs) : 

" I know him." 
J is a noun — the name of an object; of the class of nouns called 
personal pronouns — it is always of the same person; singular number — 

What is said of as after such, same, as I How is than used nfter adjectives of 
many, etc. the comparative degree? 



PARSING EXERCISES. 59 

it denotes one object; common gender — it denotes objects without refer- 
ence to sex ; first person — it denotes the person speaking ; nominative 
case — subject of the verb know. 

Rule.— The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Him is a noun — the name of an object ; of the class of nouns called 
personal pronouns — it is always of the same person ; singular number — 
it denotes one object; masculine gender — it denotes a male; third per- 
son — it denotes an object spoken of; objective case — object of the tran- 
sitive verb know. 

Rule.— The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

"He hurt me." 

He is a noun; personal pronoun; singular number; masculine gen- 
der; third person; nominative case — subject of the verb hurt. 

Rule. — The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Me is a noun ; personal pronoun;- singular number; common gen- 
der; first person; objective case — object of the transitive verb hurt. 

Rule. — The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

"He helps himself." 
Himself is a noun — the name of an object ; of the class of nouns 
called personal pronouns — it is always of the same person ; compound 
personal pronoun — it is compounded of him and self ; singular number; 
masculine gender; third person; objective case — object of the transitive 
verb helps. 

Rule. — The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

" Peter drove his horse from John's barn." 
His is a noun; personal pronoun; singular number; masculine gen- 
der; third person; possessive case — it denotes the person as possessor; 
it modifies the noun horse. 

Rule.— A noun in the possessive case modifies another noun. 

"He fined the boy who broke the window." 
Who is a noun ; of the class of nouns called relative pronouns — it 
makes a close connection of its proposition (who broke the window) 
with the idea expressed by the noun boy ; singular number ; common 
gender; nominative case — subject of the verb broke. 

Rule.— The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 



GO ETYMOLOGY. 

"We despise whom you fear."' 

Whom is a noun; relative pronoun — it makes a close connection of 
its proposition (whom you fear) with the noun person understood; 
objective case — object of the transitive verb fear. 

Rule.— The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

Note.— The relative pronoun comes before the verb of which it is the object. 

"The man found what he wanted." 
What is a noun; of the class of nouns called relative pronouns — it 
makes a close connection of its proposition (what he wanted) with the 
noun thing understood. 

"Whoever pursues pleasure will find pain." 

Whoever is a noun; relative pronoun — it makes a close connection 
of its proposition (whoever pursues pleasure) with the noun he or person 
understood; compound relative pronoun — compounded of who and 
ecer, etc. 

VERBS. 

A Verb is a word by which something is affirmed; as, 
"John iixns ;" "Caesar was killed;" "James will study." 

The word denoting that of which something is affirmed 
is called the subject of the verb. In the preceding examples 
John, Ccesar, and James are the subjects. 

The affirmation maybe absolute; as, "I walk;" or it maybe ex- 
pressed in the form of a condition; as, '-If I walk;" or of a question; 
as, "Does he walk?" or of a command; as, "John, sit down;" or of a 
wish; as, "May you prosper" 

Remarks. — 1. The word verb is derived from the Latin verbum, which means 
word. This name was given to the verb on account of its importance. 

2. The infinitive mood and the participle may be called grammatical hybrid* : the 
infinitive mood partaking of the nature of the verb and of that of the noun, and 
the participle partaking of the nature of the verb and of that of the adjective. In 
other words, the infinitive mood is the noun-form of the verb, and the participle is 
the adjective-form of the verb. By neither of them can an affirmation be made. 
These forms should not be regarded in making a definition of the verb. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the verbs and subjects in the following sentences : 
John walks. William reads. The horse gallops. Tin* sun shines. 
Peter hopped. James learned his lesson. The horse galloped. 

What is a verb? I Mention some of the ways in which the 

What is the subject of a verb? , affirmation may be expressed. 



VERBS. 61 

Brutus killed Csesar. Caesar defeated Pompey. James threw the 
ball. John walks every day. "William reads amusing books. The 
horse gallops through the wood. The sun shines brightly. You never 
study. You study diligently. James studies his lesson diligently. He 
read the book. Joseph came. Joseph went to town. Joseph came 
home. "Wars and convulsions arise. The horse ran away. 

2. Put a verb in the place of each of the following blanks : 
John .... his work. George .... a letter. The horse .... The 
traveler .... a treasure. This story .... beautiful. We .... happy. 
Peter .... an apostle. A bad boy .... his parents. "William .... a 
rabbit. Ann .... stockings. John .... houses. A good man .... in 
that house. God .... just. Horse .... fast. Irene .... on a chair. 
Benjamin .... on a bed. 

CLASSES OF VEKBS. 

Verbs are either transitive or intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb is a verb that expresses an action 
exerted directly upon some object; as, "John struck George;" 
"George was struck by John." 

An Intransitive Verb is a verb that does not express an 
action exerted directly upon some object; as, "Peter sleeps;" 
"Mary is good;" "The horse runs." 

Remarks.— 1. The word transitive means passing over; and verbs of this class are 
so called because the action is represented as passing over from the actor to the 
object acted upon. 

2. As the object of a transitive verb in the active voice is in the objective case, 
any verb which makes sense with me, thee, him, her, us, or them, is a transitive verb. 
Thus, we may know that strikes is a transitive verb by its making sense with him 
after it ; as, "John strikes him ;" but "John sleeps him " does not make sense. 

3. The same verb may be transitive in one sense and intransitive in another ; 
thus, in the sentence, " He believes me," believes is transitive; but in this phrase, 
" He believes in me," it is intransitive. 

4. Observe that if a preposition with its object immediately follows a verb in 
the active voice, the verb is not transitive. In the sentence, " He believes in me," 
the verb believes is followed by the preposition in, and the noun me is the object of 
that preposition and not of the verb. In "He believes me" there is no prep- 
osition. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following verbs are transitive and which intransitive, and 
name the object of each transitive verb. ( The words in italics are prepositions ) : 

Jane broke the chair. The horse kicked the cow. The book lies on 
the table. The hunter shot a deer. Whales swim in the sea. Susan 

Into how many classes are verbs divided ? I Why are transitive verbs so called ? 
What is a transitive verb ? How may a transitive verb be known ? 

What is an intransitive verb ? I May a verb be transitive and intransitive? 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

smiled. Komulus slew Remus. Scipio conquered Hannibal. "Wash- 
ington commanded the army. Birds fly in the air. Thomas laughed. 
Erasmus wrote a letter. The tailor spoiled the coat. Emma remained 
in the house. Anna spoke to her. The pen fell from his hand. 

The horse went into the stable. He ate the corn. The dog caught 
the rabbit. Robert looked at me. Smoke rises in the air. The sun 
parched the earth. He sharpens knives. The boy waits for her. The 
tiger attacked the man. The serpent crushed the tiger. The bird sat 
on the fence. 

Mummius destroyed Corinth. God created the world. He stepped 
into the water. The good man avoids vice. She confessed her sins. He 
walked in the mud. The boy fell over the bench. He ran up the hill. 

The mother loves her babe. The oxen draw the wagon. He owes 
twenty dollars. I have some money. The boy turns the wheel. He 
possesses a large estate. The boy turns to the fire. I see John. I see 
through his plans. I met him. I met with a misfortune. This book 
cost ten dollars. 

2. Put a transitive verb in each of the following blanks: 

William .... his parents. James .... the cow. We .... a book. 
Ella .... her lesson. That man .... money. God .... us. The dog 
.... the squirrel. That man .... me. Jane .... black eyes. Thomas 
.... his desk. He .... virtue. The clouds .... the sky. Edward 
Smith .... the knife. Augustus .... the noise. Samuel .... music. 
I . . . . James Thompson. They .... a house. The robber .... the 
traveler. 

3. Put an intransitive verb in each of the following blanks : 

The dog . ... on the grass. Time .... swiftly. He ... . into the 
water. Benjamin .... into the house. She .... for a change. We 
. ... on the grass. John .... diligently. Mary .... sweetly. 1 1 
.... Henry .... far. He .... good. She .... happy. She .... 
at me. The book . ... on the table. Susan . ... to town. Serena .... 
with me. 

4. Form three sentences containing transitive verbs. Three containing intran- 
sitive verbs. 

With respect to form verbs are regular or irregular. 

Note.— Some writers use the terms weak and strong instead of regular and irreg- 
ular; but as every new verb introduced into the language immediately takes the 
termination cd, it is certainly proper to call this the regular way and the verb a 
regular verb. 

How are verbs divided with respect to form? 



VEEBS. 63 

A verb is Regular when the past tense and the auxiliary 
perfect participle are formed by annexing ed to the imperfect 
infinitive; as, 



IMP. OR PRES. INFIN. 



PAST TENSE. 



AUX. PERF. PARTICIPLE. 



Trust, trusted, trusted; 

Hope, hoped, hoped ; 

Drop, dropped, dropped; 

Dry, dried, dried. 

Note.— When ed is annexed to hope e is dropped from hope; when ed is an- 
nexed to drop p is doubled ; when ed is annexed to dry y is changed to i. ( See 
General Rules for Spelling, Hi, v, and vii.) 

A verb is Irregular when the past tense or perfect parti- 
ciple is not formed by annexing ed to the imperfect infini- 
tive; as, 



IMP. OR PRES. INFIN. PAST TENSE. 

Write, wrote, . 

Do, did, . . 

Hear, heard, . 



ATJX. PERF. PARTICIPLE. 

.... written; 
.... done; 
.... heard. 



A Defective Verb is one which wants some of its parts. 
An Auxiliary Verb is one which is used in conjugating 
other verbs. 

EXERCISES. 

The following verbs are in the past tense ; tell whether they belong to regular 
or irregular verbs. ( What the auxiliary perfect participle is may be seen by form- 
ing the present-perfect tense. Thus, "I have attempted;" "I have written:') 

He attempted it. Jane wrote a letter. She received a letter. That 
man was here. Edmund had a book. James found a dollar. Mary 
took my book. She advised me. He urged me on. The boys heard 
a noise. 

Eugenia said so. He lay on the grass. I gave it to him. The 
tree bore fruit. Thomas laughed heartily. Stephen ran very fast. I 
spent a dollar. William drank some water. The dog caught the fox. 
The man lost his way. We hoped so. He stopped the horse. I saw 
an elephant. 

She expected a present. He came unexpectedly. He raised up the 
child. He rose from the bed. Josephine took her book to school. 



When is a verb regular? 

What takes place when ed is annexed 

to hope? 
When ed is annexed to drop ? 



When ed is annexed to dry? 
When is a verb irregular? 
What is a defective verb ? 
What is an auxiliary verb ? 



64 



ETYMOLOGY. 



PKOPERTIES OF VERBS. 
To verbs belong voice, mood, tense, number, and person. 

VOICES. 

Voice is a property of transitive verbs founded on the 
relation of the subject to the action. 

There are two voices, the active and the passive. 

When the word denoting the actor is the subject the verb 
is in the Active Voice; as, " Brutus killed Caesar." 

When the word denoting the object acted upon is the subject 
the verb is in the Passive Voice; as, "Caesar was killed by 
Brutus." 

The two expressions, "Brutus killed Caesar" and "Caesar was killed 
by Brutus," convey the same idea; but in the former the attention is 
directed to Brutus as performing the action, in the latter to Caesar as 
affected by the action. In the former the person denoted by the subject 
Brutus is represented as active, in the latter the person denoted by the 
subject Ccesar is represented as passive. 

Any sentence containing a transitive verb in the active voice may 
be so altered as to convey the same sense with the verb in the passive 
voice. 

That which is the object in the active becomes the subject in the 
passive; and the subject of the active is put in the objective case after 
the preposition by. Thus, "The dog bit the cat'' may be changed into 
"The cat was bitten by the dog." 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

Mummius destroyed Corinth; 
Caesar defeated Pompey ; 
God governs the world ; 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Corinth was destroyed by Mummius. 
Pompey was defeated by Caesar: 
The world ?.s governed by God. 



Remarks.— 1. Some make passive verbs a distinct class. But the passive voice 
is a form which every transitive verb may assume and should be considered 
merely a modification. In both voices there are the same two things regarded in 
connection with the action, namely, the actor and the object artrri t//>o/i ; and the 
distinction of voice arises from the particular way in which these two thill 
presented. 

2. The word passive is derived from a Latin word which moans to siifrr; and 
the name is given to this form because the subject is represented a< goffering or 
undergoing the action. 



What properties belong to verl>s? 
What is voice? How many voices? 
When is the verb in the active voice ? 
When in the passive ? 



How may a sentence containing ■ verb 

in the active voice be changed 
convey the same meaning with the 
verb in the passive voice? 



VERBS. 65 

3. When the active voice is used the object may be omitted ; thus we may say, 
" Peter reads," without affirming whether he reads a book, a newspaper, or a letter. 
When the passive voice is used the name of the agent may be omitted ; thus we 
say, " The book is read," without declaring by whom it is read. 

4. It is convenient to use this form when we do not know, or when we know 
and do not wish to name, the agent ; as, " My pen has been spoiled." The same 
idea, however, may be represented by the active with an indefinite subject ; as, 
"Somebody has spoiled my pen." 

5. The passive is sometimes used merely to give variety, when the active would 
express the meaning as well. 

6. An intransitive verb can not be used in the passive form, since it has no 
object in the active to become the subject of the passive. But intransitive verbs 
followed by prepositions are sometimes treated as if they formed with the preposi- 
tions compound verbs, which, being transitive, are used in the passive voice, the 
object of that which is the preposition with the active voice becoming the subject 
with the passive. Thus, to smile is intransitive, and we can not say, " He was 
smiled by her ;" but we may say, " She smiled on him ;" " He was smiled on by her." 

7. Some would call on an adverb with the passive form, but not correctly. 
Was smiled on should be considered a compound verb, for the passive is used only 
because smiled on in the active is treated as a transitive verb. In parsing the active, 
however, we should parse the words as they are— smiled as an intransitive verb, and 
on as a preposition. 

8. Sometimes several words are taken with the verb and the whole treated as 
a compound verb and used in the passive voice ; as, " His character was lost sight of 
in that transaction;" "The cakes were done liberal justice to." — Scott. This con- 
struction, however, does not deserve to be imitated. Say, " Liberal justice was 
done to the cakes," or "The cakes had liberal justice done to them." 

9. Intransitive verbs are sometimes followed by the objective case of a noun of 
kindred signification to their own, and this objective may be the subject of the 
passive ; as, "John ran a race ;" "A race was run by John." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Change the following sentences so as to convey the same meaning with the 
verb in the passive voice : 

Active Voice — " Columbus discovered America." 
Passive Voice — "America was discovered by Columbus." 
Columbus discovered America. The wind shook the tree. Nero 
burned Kome. Dissipation will ruin him. Water allays thirst. Time 
changes all things. He will deceive you. The mowers have cut the 
grass. Thomas had seen Emma. Virtue produces happiness. 

2. Change the following sentences so as to give the same meaning with the 
verb in the active voice : 

Passive Voice — "A beautiful light is given by the moon." 
Active Voice — " The moon gives a beautiful light." 
A beautiful light is given by the moon. Pompey was defeated by 
Caesar. An oration was delivered by Cicero. The plant was killed by 
the sun. That book was torn by the dog. Constantinople was taken 
by the Turks. Italy was invaded by the barbarians. The wheat will 
be injured by the rain. The state had been conquered by a tyrant. 

6 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. Which of the following verbs are in the active voice, and which are in the 
passive voice? 

Anne cut the thread. The thread was cut by Anne. George split 
the wood. The wood was split by George. The boy read the book. 
The book was read by the boy. The man shot the squirrel. Thomas 
sees us. The horse kicked the cow. The horse was kicked by the cow. 
The cow was kicked by the horse. Nuts are eaten by squirrels. The 
horse eats the corn. 

John reads. The book was read. Thomas will write. The letter 
was written. My coat was torn. "We have been deceived. Mary will 
recite. The lesson has been recited. 

MOODS. 

Moods are different modes of expressing the action or state. 

There are four moods; the indicative, the imperative, the 
infinitive, and the participle, or participial mood. 

The Indicative Mood is used to express direct assertion 
and interrogation; as, "I walk;" "I can walk;" "Do I waUcI" 
"Can I ivalkf 

The Imperative Mood is used to express command, exhor- 
tation, entreaty, or permission; as, "Study your lesson;" "Obey 
your parents ;" "Save my child;" " Go in peace. " 

The Infinitive Mood partakes of the nature of the verb 
and of that of the noun; as, "To play is pleasant;" "John 
loves to walk" 

Here to play expresses action, like the verb, and forms the subject 
of the verb is, like the noun ; to walk expresses action, like the verb, 
and forms the object of the verb loves, like the noun. 

The Participle partakes of the nature of the verb and 
of that of the adjective; as, "I see a man cutting wood;" 
" She died lamented by all." 

Here catting expresses action, like the verb, and belongs to the noun 
man, like the adjective. Lamented expresses action received, like the 
verb in the passive voice, and it belongs to the pronoun she, like the 
adjective. 

What are moods? i The imperative t 

How many moods? Name them. What is said of the Infinitive mood? 

How is the indicative osei 1 ' Of the participle ? 



VERBS. 67 

Remarks — 1. There are many modes of expressing the action or state, and 
some grammarians have made a large number of moods. We read of the declara- 
tive mood, the definitive, the rogative, the interrogative, the requisitive, the percontative, 
the assertive, the vocative, the potential, the dubitative, the conjunctive, the subjunctive, 
etc. It is possible for a language to exist with a peculiar form for each different 
mode of expressing the action or state ; but no language has so great a number. 
Grammar is concerned with those modes only that are represented by peculiar 
forms. 

2. The indicative mood may be employed in propositions expressing condi- 
tions, suppositions, and other things which are not direct assertions ; as, " If he has 
money he will pay you." But here the condition is expressed, not by the form of 
the verb has, but by the word if. The verb itself expresses a direct assertion, " he 
has money;" the word if making the proposition equivalent to "grant this fact, 
he has money." 

3. With the second person of the imperative mood the subject is generally 
understood; "Depart." Here the subject you is understood. But when the 
imperative takes the first or the third person the subject is expressed. (See 
page 83.) 

4. The infinitive mood is usually accompanied by the sign to; as, " He wishes 
to learn." But after certain verbs, among which are may, can, must, might, could, 
would, and shoidd, the simple form (without to) is used ; as, " I can learn," "I may 
learn, " "I could learn. ' ' 

5. The to of the infinitive was originally a preposition. The Anglo-Saxons 
had two forms of the infinitive, one without to, as helpan, to help ; the other with 
to, as, to helpanne, to or for helping. The latter form is by some called the dative 
of the infinitive, by others the gerund. The two forms in the course of time 
became confounded, to came to be used with the first form as well as with the 
second, and the nature of to was gradually forgotten. 

[Note.— To say, as some do, that to in such expressions as " To play is pleas- 
ant" is a preposition is as absurd as to say that all the Smiths of the present day 
are smiths.] 

6. The infinitive mood takes its name infinitive (not limited) from the fact that 
it is not limited to a subject. To distinguish them from verbs in this mood, verbs 
in the indicative and imperative are called finite verbs. The participle also is not 
limited. 

7. The infinitive sometimes takes a subject, as will be noticed hereafter ; but 
in this use it loses its distinctive character. 

8. The participle derives its name from the Latin participo, to partake, and is 
so called because it is a form of the verb that partakes of the properties of the 
adjective. Some make of the participle a separate part of speech ; but it has no 
greater claims to this distinction than the infinitive mood has. They are both 
participles in the etymological sense of the term ; the one being a verbal form 
partaking of the nature of the adjective, the other a verbal form partaking of the 
nature of the noun. 

9. A participle denotes an action or state, and is transitive or intransitive; and 
when transitive is used in the active and passive voices; but it can not be so used 
as to express an affirmation. Like an adjective it belongs to a noun; as, "I see a 
man cutting wood." Here cutting denotes an action, is in the active voice, and has 
an object like a transitive verb ; and it belongs to the noun man like an adjective. 

10. Participles are intermediate between verbs and adjectives, as zoophytes are 
between animals and vegetables. Lord Bacon gives the name participle to those 
productions which seem to form a connecting link between the aninjal and vege- 
table kingdoms. " The participles or confiners between plants and living creatures 
are such chiefly as are fixed and have no local motion of remove, though they 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

have a motion in their parts. . . . There is a fabulous narration that in the 
northern countries there should be an herb that grovveth in the likeness of a lamb 
and feedeth upon the grass in such sort as it will bare the grass round about."— 
Natural History, page 609. 

The Gerund, or Participial Noun. 

The gerund, or participial noun, has the same form with the parti- 
ciple in ing; but it is a noun, like the infinitive, while the participle 
is an adjective; as, "He commenced playing "=" He began to play;" 
"He delights in playing" 

Note.—" It is to be observed also that in English there are two infinitives, one 
in ing, the same in sound and spelling as the participle present, from which, how- 
ever, it should be carefully distinguished ; for example, ' Rising early is healthful,' 
and ' It is healthful to rise early,' are equivalent. Grammarians have produced 
much needless perplexity in speaking of the participle in « ing ' being employed 
so and so ; when it is manifest that that very employment of the word con- 
stitutes it to all intents and purposes an infinitive, and not a participle. The 
advantage of the infinitive in ing is that it may be used in the nominative or in 
any oblique case.— Whately's Logic: Book II., chap, i, sec. 3. 

Remark.— It is probable that the gerund has been formed from the Anglo- 
Saxon infinitive in an. This at a later period became en, and the termination en 
was afterward changed to ing, an ending borrowed from the Anglo-Saxon verbal 
noun in ung, ing. 

Note.—" Some modern grammarians will have it that a participle governed by 
a preposition is a 'participial noun;' and yet, when they come to parse an*adverb 
or an objective following it, their 'noun' becomes a 'participle' again, and not a 
'noun.' To allow words to dodge from one class to another is not only unphilo- 
sophical, but ridiculously absurd. Among those who thus treat this construction 
of the participle, the chief, I think, are Butler, Hart, Weld, Wells, and S. S. 
Greene."— Goo Id Brown, "Grammar of English Grammars," page 633. 

It is not probable that any of the persons mentioned has made the participial 
noun "dodge" in this "ridiculously absurd" way. The doctrine in "Butler's 
Practical Grammar " is that the " participial noun " is a noun like the infinitive, 
and that it may be modified as the infinitive is modified. But Mr. Brown could 
never understand the participial noun. He scarcely ever mentions it without 
condemning some of the most common idioms of the language, simply because 
he confounds the noun with the adjective. 

The gerund, like the infinitive, may be modified as the finite verb is 
modified, by adverbs, by nouns in the objective case, by the predicate- 
nominative, etc.; as, "He is engaged in studying arithmetic;" "By 
coming suddenly upon tbem I frightened them." 

Gerunds may have compound forms; as, "After having studied so 
diligently you must know your lesson;" "Was he made better by 
being persecuted^" 

Note.— Most grammars make two other moods, with the names "potential" 
and "subjunctive." 

What is the gerund ? | How may the gerund be modified ? 



VERBS. 69 

The "potential mood" is represented as composed of the " auxiliary verbs" 
may, can, must, might, could, would, should and a "principal" verb; as, "I can 
write;" " I must write;'" " I would write;" " You should write." And here are some 
explanations: "The indicative and potential both declare, but they declare dif- 
ferent things : the former declares what the subject does oris; the latter what it 
may or can, etc., do or be. The declaration made by the indicative is simple ; that 
made by the potential is always complex, containing the idea of liberty, power, etc., 
in connection with the act." — Bullions' s Analytical English Grammar. " The poten- 
tial mood is also used in principal propositions, not however to represent the 
actual, but that which at the time of speaking exists, or is supposed to exist, only 
in idea— that which is merely imagined or thought of." — Green's Elements of English 
Grammar. The examples given are, " We can sing;" "You may write;" "Hemust 
read;" " They should obey the law." 

Each of the forms assigned to this mood consists of two verbs, the one in the 
indicative, the other in the infinitive mood; as, "I can swim" (I am able to 
swim); " Children should obey" (ought to obey). Here can denotes power and 
should denotes obligation as expressly as these things are denoted by am able and 
ought. Can and should declare absolutely " the facts expressed by the verbs," 
which facts are power and obligation. " Children should — ." " Children ought—." 
In the first of these expressions as clearly as in the last obligation is declared as a 
positive fact, belonging to "the actual," not existing or supposed to exist "only 
in idea, not merely imagined or thought of." Shoidd and ought are both followed by 
the infinitive, to being omitted after should, as it is after bid, dare, feel, let, and some 
other verbs. When Launce says to Speed, " Fie on thee, jolt-head ! thou canst not 
read," Speed replies, "Thou liest, I can." Does Speed intend to declare that his 
ability is merely " imagined or thought off" 

But though "the indicative and potential both declare," " they declare dif- 
ferent things." We should expect two verbs of different meanings to declare dif- 
ferent things. When I say, " I can read," I employ can to declare my ability, and I 
employ another word to denote what 1 can do. When I say, " I wish to read," I 
employ wish to declare my desire, and I employ another word to denote what I 
desire. If can read is to be placed in the potential mood, wish to read also should 
be placed in that mood, because it does not declare " what the subject does or is," 
but only what " it " wishes to do ; ,and because the declaration made by "I wish 
to read " is complex, containing the idea of desire "in connection with the act." 

There is no greater propriety in regarding can read as one word than there is 
in regarding dare read, ought to read, wish to read, or have to read as one word. 

The Anglo-Saxons had a subjunctive mood ; but very little of it has descended 
to the modern English. In turning the Anglo-Saxon subjunctive into English we 
do not generally turn it into a subjunctive form; but we sometimes use may, 
might, etc., with the infinitive, sometimes the infinitive by itself, sometimes the 
indicative ; as, " Tha sende he hine to his tune, that he Jieolde hys swyn," then sent 
he him to his field, that he might keep his swine, or to keep; " He saegde thaet 
Sarra his sweoster waere," he said that Sarah was his sister ; " Whaet secge ge thaet 
ic sig?" What say ye that I am? "Whaet do ic thaet ic ece lif haebbeV What 
shall I do that I may have eternal life ? " Ne bidde ic thaet thu hig nime of niidden- 
earde," I pray not that thou slioiddst take them out of the world. 

Many have attempted to make a subjunctive mood for modern English. They 
have taken the few unstable relics of the Anglo-Saxon subjunctive and borrowed 
from the indicative what was necessary to make out a mood, giving to a conjunc- 
tion the power to transfer almost any form to the subjunctive mood. Murray 
makes a mass of confusion in his attempts to form a subjunctive mood. He some- 
times expresses himself as if he thought distinct forms necessary to a subjunctive 
mood ; then again he seems to think that an if or some other conjunction before 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

a verb is sufficient to transform the indicative to the subjunctive. He says he 
follows Dr. Lowth and the most correct and elegant writers in limiting the con- 
junctive termination of the principal verb to the second and third persons singular 
of the present tense. He means that the so-called "present subjunctive" is the 
same as the present indicative except in these two persona Thus his "present 
subjunctive" of the verb to love is " if I love, if thou love, if he love, if we love, if 
you love, if they love." The present indicative has the same forms except in the 
second and third persons singular, thou lovest, he loves. In his definition of the 
subjunctive mood he says that it is "preceded by a conjunction express 
understood." But the same forms may be preceded by adverbs; as, "Blow till 
thou burst thy wind."— Shakespeare. " Until the day dawn and the day-star arise." — 
English Bible. " Come down ere my child die."— lb. "Before the cock crou-."—Ib. 
11 Till danger's troubled night depart."— Campbell. Here we have the subjunctive 
form without the subjunctive mood. [More correctly speaking, till, unto 
before are prepositions with noun-propositions as their objects. "Till the day 
dawn "=" Till the dawn of day."] 

Murray says : " The second and third persons, in both numbers, of the second- 
future tense of all verbs, require a variation from the forms which those tenses 
have in the indicative mood. Thus, 'He will have completed the work by mid- 
summer' is the indicative form; but the subjunctive is, 'If he shall have com- 
pleted the work by midsummer.' " But we find this " subjunctive " after adverbs 
and pronouns ; as, " When he shall have completed the work he will be paid ;" " I 
will pay every one who shall have completed the work assigned him." Here 
are " subjunctive " forms, but, according to the definition, no subjunctive muod. 

That which is called the " present subjunctive " is not a present tense at all. 
Murray himself says that it expresses futurity. Take for illustration the following 
passage : " If thou turn away thy foot from the Sabbath, from doing thy pleasure 
on my holy day ; and call the Sabbath a delight, the holy of the Lord, honourable ; 
and shalt honour him." — English Bible. Here turn, call, and shall honour denote the 
same future time. There is a transition from the old idea of the " subjunctive" 
to the modern idea of "the auxiliary." With these relics of the subjunctive 
mood, which are passing out of use,* it is better, in accordance with the genius of 
modern English to regard shaU, should, may or might as implied. 

EXERCISES. 

In what mood is each of the verbs in the following exercises? 

"John ran." 
Ran is in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct assertion. 

"Mary wishes to learn." 

Wishes is in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct 
assertion. 

To learn is in the infinitive mood — it partakes of the nature of 
the verb and of the noun. 

Note.— Here to learn is used as a noun in the objective case, the object of the 
verb wishes. 

*"The subjunctive is evidently passing out of use; and there 
to suppose that it will soon become obsolete altogether."— George P. Manh 
has become equally allowable to write if he Ions and if he love, even in careful 
and elegant styles of composition, while the latter is very rarely heard in collo- 
quial discourse."— Whitiui/s Languagi and the Study of Language,' -p. 87. 



VERBS. 71 

"To study is pleasant." 
To study is in the infinitive mood — it partakes of the nature of the 
verb and of the noun. „ 

Note.— Here to study is used as a noun in the nominative case, the subject of 
the verb is. * 

"William is studying." 
Studying is a participle — it partakes of the nature of the verb and 
of the adjective. 

Note.— Here studying belongs to the noun William, like an adjective. 

"John can read" 

Can is a verb in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct 
assertion. 

Read is in the infinitive mood, to being omitted after can — it par- 
takes of the nature of the verb and of the noun. 

Note.— Here read is used as a noun in the objective case, the object of the verb 
can. The original meaning of the word can is to know. John knows what? He 
knows to read. 

[ The pupil is not expected to enter into these details. The notes are given 
merely to illustrate the general principle.] 

"William should study." 

Should is in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct 
assertion. / 

Study is in the infinitive mood, to being omitted after should — it 
partakes of the meaning of the verb under the form of a noun. 

Note.— Here study is used as a noun in the objective case, the object of the 
verb should. Should study is equivalent to owes to study. William owes what ? He 
owes to study. 

"He may see me if he wishes." 

Wishes is in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct 
assertion. 

Note.— The clause if he wishes expresses a supposition by means of the word 
1f; but he wishes expresses a direct assertion. 

"Run, John." 
Run is in the imperative mood — it is used to express a command. 

"Come you in peace?" 

Come is in the indicative mood — it is used to express an interrogation. 

[Observe that the infinitive is usually preceded by the sign to, except after 
may, can, must, might, could, would, and shmdd. The participial mood may be 
called simply the participle. Most participles end in ing or ed.] 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

John ran. Peter jumped. The bird sings. George saw a lion. 
Mary wishes to learn. Jane desires to study. William ought to study. 
"William should study. William must study. William is studying. 
The child learns to talk. John can read. The bird is singing. He 
died respected by all. The child is talking. To» study is pleasant. 

If you sin, you must suffer. Orlando took my pen, though I wanted 
it myself. I would study, if I had my book. I must go, though it 
rains. He may go, though you must stay. If he saw you, he would 
speak to you. He should not touch the watch, unless his father gives 
him permission. He may see me, if he wishes. 

Kun, John. William, study. Mary, come to me. Children, obey 
your parents. Strive to excel. Cease to do evil. Learn to do well. 
O! save my life! Stay with me to-day. Kobert, play with me. You 
must not play now. Eobert, I wish you would play with me. Love 
and honor your mother. 

Come you in peace ? Can you read ? Must you go ? Should you 
know him if you should see him ? May I read this book ? Could he 
fail if he should attempt it? Where is Thomas? Is he there? Have 
you my pen ? Know you the land where the citrons bloom ? 

James is writing. Mary is sewing. Defeated and betrayed, the 
man became weary of life. The rain is falling where they lie. I see 
a man coming through the gate. Deserted at his utmost need, on the 
cold ground he lies. James, are you reading? Though I am reading, 
I hear you. 

Love not sleep, lest thou shouldst come to poverty. Take heed, lest 
some one may deceive you. If thine enemy should hunger, feed him. 
Love not sleep, lest thou [here the verb shouldst, on which the infinitive 
come depends, is omitted] come to poverty. Take heed, lest some one 
deceive you. If thine enemy hunger, feed him. Make hay while the 
sun shines. 

TENSES. 

Tenses are modifications of the verb to denote the relation 
of the event to time. 

There are three divisions of time; the present, the jxist, and 
the future. 

In each division there are two tenses, one of which denotes 
the occurrence of the event in the division of time referred 

What are tenses ? Name them. 

ITow many divisions of time? How many tenses in each division? 



VERBS. 73 

to, the other denotes the event as perfect, that is, as having 
already taken place, in the time. 

Thus we have six tenses, which are named as follows: 

PRESENT TIME. 

1. Present Tense, as, "I write." 

2. Present-perfect Tense, as, " I have written." 

PAST TIME. 

1. Past Tense, as, " I wrote." 

2. Past-perfect Tense, as, " I had written." 

FUTURE TIME. 

1. Future Tense, as, "I shall write." 

2. Future-perfect Tense, as, "I shall have written." 

Formation of the Perfect Tenses. 

i" have is the present tense of the verb to have; I had is the past 
tense, and i" shall have the future tense of the verb to have. Written 
is the auxiliary perfect participle of the verb to write. 

The perfect tenses are composed of the present, past, and future 
tenses of the verb to have and the auxiliary perfect participle of the 
principal verb, which in the present instance is to write. The tense of 
the verb to have points out the time, and the perfect participle denotes 
the completion of the action. Thus, 

TENSE OF THE VERB TO HAVE. PARTICIPLE. COMPOUND TENSE. 

{Pointing out the time.] {Denoting tlie completion.'] {Formed of the two.] 

Present, I have Perfect, written ; I have written. 

Past, . . I had Perfect, written ; I had written. 

Future, I shall have. . . Perfect, written; I shall have written. 

Remarks.— 1. Strictly speaking, present time is merely the point at which the 
past and the future meet; and if we take the smallest imaginable portion of time 
for the present, this portion will contain some of the past and some of the future. 
Thus, if we assume this hour as the present time, part of the hour is past and part 
is to come ; so if we take this minute or this second. But we may take any portion 
of time — a day, a year, a century— and consider the whole of it as constituting 
present time and the rest of time as past and future. Thus, "I am writing this 
moment ;" "I have written a letter to-day ;" " Many great works have been written 
in this century;" "A great change has taken place since the birth of Christ." In the 
last example the whole period from the birth of Christ, including the moment of 
speaking, is taken as present time. "Many earthquakes have occurred since the 
creation." Here the creation is the beginning of the time which is assumed as 
present. 

Name the tenses. Of what are the perfect tenses composed ? 

7 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. The past tenses and the future tenses of themselves denote no particular 
portion of past time and future time. " I wrote " expresses an action which may 
have been performed in the last hour or the last year. 

EXERCISES. 

1. What division of time is referred to in each of the following sentences? 
[Remember that the time may be present though the action is completed.] 

I walked yesterday. I walk to-day. I have walked twenty miles 
to-day. I will walk to-morrow. I am writing a letter. I wrote a 
letter yesterday. I have written two letters to-day. I will write three 
letters to-morrow. 

Caesar defeated Pompey. "Washington commanded the army. The 
river overflowed its banks. The summer has now come. The summer 
has come. Summer is here. The clouds have disappeared. He rode 
yesterday. He is riding to-day. She will study well. 

Many philosophers have lived since the time of Bacon. You had 
written your letter before dinner. Many discoveries have been made 
during the present century. God loves good men. Time destroys all 
things. Good children obey their parents. 

2. With each of the following auxiliary perfect participles form a present- 
perfect, a past-perfect, and a future-perfect tense. [Remember that with tho 
participle I have forms the present-perfect, I had the past-perfect, and I shall have 
the future-perfect.] 

"Written, walked, jumped, studied, learned, caught, done, returned, 
been, sailed, begun, fallen, dined, known, seen, come, gone, loved, scat- 
tered, gathered, viewed, mingled, pushed, divided, separated. 

A Fuller View of the Tenses. 

The Present Tense expresses what takes place in present 
time; as, "I love; I am loved." 

The Present-perfect Tense represents an action or state 
as perfect or completed in present time; as, "I liave walked 
to-day;" "John has studied this week;" "Many excellent 
works have been written during this century." 

The Past Tense expresses what took place in past time ; 
as, "I wrote a letter yesterday;" "God created the world;" 
"Caesar was hilled by Brutus." 

Do the past tenses and future tenses de- 1 How does the present-perfect tense rep- 
note any particular time? j n sent an action or m 

What does the present tense express ? | What does the past tense express? 



Present, 



VERBS. 75 

* 
The Past-perfect Tense represents an action or state as 
perfect or completed at some past time referred to; as, "I liad 
written the letter when he arrived;" "The ship Jwd sailed 
before he reached Boston." 

The Future Tense expresses what will take place here- 
after; as, "George will go to Chattanooga, and I shall see 
him there." 

The Future-perfect Tense represents an action or state 
as perfect or completed at some future time; as, "I shall have 
dined at one o'clock." 

SIGNS OF THE TENSES. 

In the active voice same as the simple form of 
the infinitive ; after thou est is annexed to the 
simple form; after a word in the third person 
s is annexed. 
In the passive voice, am, are, art, and is, with 
the 2iassive participle. 
Present-perfect, . . Have, hast, and has. 

r In the active voice of regular verbs ed is annexed 
to the simple form ; after thou edst. 
' 1 In the passive voice, was, wast, and were, with 
I the passive participle. 
Past-perfect, .... Had and hadst. 

Future, Shall, will, shalt, and wilt. 

Future-perfect, . . Shall have, will have, shalt have, and wilt have. 

EXAMPLES. 

PRESENT. 

Active — I follow (infinitive, to follow), thou followest, he follows, 
we follow. 

Passive — I am followed, thou art followed, he is followed, we are 
followed. 

PRESENT-PERFECT. 

Active — I have followed, thou hast followed, he has followed. 
Passive — I have been followed. 

How does the past-perfect tense repre- I Hoav does the future-perfect represent 

sent an action or state ? an action or state ? 

What does the future tense express ? | Give the signs of the different tenses. 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

PAST. 

Active— I followed, thou followedst, he followed. 

Passive— I was followed, thou wast followed, we were followed. 

PAST-PERFECT. 

Active— I had followed, thou hadst followed, he had followed. 
Passive — I had been followed. 

FUTURE. 

Active— 1 shall follow, thou wilt follow, he will follow. 
Passive— I shall be followed, thou wilt be followed. 

FUTURE-PERFECT. 

Active— I shall have followed, thou wilt have followed. 

Passive — I shall have been followed. 

Note.— The passive voice has not the participle in ing. "I am following" 
is not passive. 

Remarks.— 1. An existing custom or general truth may be expressed by the 
present tense; as, "Thomas visits me every day;" "Time and tide wait for no 
man ;" " Vice produces misery." 

2. The past tense may express a past custom, and the future tense a future 
custom; as, "Thirty steeds, both fleet and wight, 

Stood saddled in stable day and night, 
A hundred more fed free in stall- 
Such was the custom in Branksonie Hall." 

" The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the 

kid ;" "And the lion shall eat straw like the ox." 

3. In animated narration the present tense is sometimes used to express past 
events, the speaker being supposed to become so much interested that the events 
seem to be passing before him; as, 

"What sounds upon the midnight wind 
Approach so rapidly behind? 
It is, it is the tramp of steeds ; 
Matilda liears the sound, she speeds, 
Seizes upon the leader's rein." 

4. The present and present-perfect tenses may be employed in speaking of an 
author long since dead when we refer to the works which are still in existence ; as, 
" Virgil imitates Homer ;" " Virgil has imitated Homer." " Milton has uTittcn some 
noble works in prose as well as in verse." Here we refer not to the act of writing 
but to Milton's character as a writer, as shown in the works which still exist. But 
if the works did not remain, we should say, " Milton wrote ;" and even though the 
work is still extant, if we refer to the act of writing, we use the past tense ; as, 
" Milton wrote Paradise Lost." 

5. The present and present-perfect tenses are sometimes used in subordinate 
propositions to express future events, chiefly after when, as noon a.«, till, after, before, 
and after relative pronouns; as, " I shall see him when he corner," that is, shall hare 
come; "I will go whin the sun rises," that is. shall have risen; "You will i 
clearly till daylight appears;'' "I shall receive a letter after the mail arrives;" 



VEKBS. 77 

"He will kill every one whom he meets;" "I will go when John has risen;" "You 
will not see clearly till daylight has appeared." 

6. In such expressions the present is used to denote the action or state abso- 
lutely without reference to time. Thus, "I shall receive a letter after the mail 
arrives," means "I shall receive a letter after the arrival of the mail;" "I will go 
when the sun rises," means " I will go at the rising of the sun." 

7. This use of the present can not be explained on the ground that the present 
denotes "the relative time of a future event," that is, a future event present 
(going on) at the time of some other future event ; for the arrival of the mail is 
assumed to take place be/ore the reception of the letter. The use of the present- 
perfect, however, may he explained in this way ; as, "I shall receive a letter after 
the mail has arrived." 

8. To understand the distinction between the past tense and the present- 
perfect tense it is necessary to avoid confounding the time and the action. Each 
of these tenses denotes a past action ; but with the present-perfect tense the time is 
assumed to be present, while with the past tense the time is regarded as past. At 
the close of the week, for instance, an account of what John did on Monday may 
be given in either the past tense or the present-perfect. We may say, "John studied 
last Monday," regarding the time as past; or we may say, speaking of the same 
event, "John has studied this week," taking the whole week as present. A very 
old man may say, "I have been young," because his whole life is regarded as 
present time. When he says, "I was once young." he separates his youth from 
the succeeding portion of his life and consequently employs the past tense. In 
short, the present-perfect tense is never used unless the time is regarded as present. 
One who has just met his friend may say, " I have seen my friend ;" but if he uses 
any expression that separates the time from the present by the smallest imagin- 
able interval, he can no longer employ the present-perfect tense. He does not say, 
"I have seen my friend a moment ago," but "I saw my friend a moment ago." 
When we say, "John walked to-day," we refer to a portion of the day which has 
expired. 

9. In conditions or suppositions the past form sometimes refers to present time ; 
as, " If I had a pen now I would write." In this sense the verb implies that the 
thing supposed does not exist. " If I have a pen," leaves it uncertain whether I 
have a pen or not. The English language having but two simple tenses, the present 
and the past, and the present being employed in conditions implying present 
uncertainty, the past was from necessity taken to express suppositions implying 
the present non-existence of the thing supposed. The difficulty could not have 
been avoided by taking one of the tenses formed by the aid of auxiliaries; for the 
auxiliary itself is in either the present or the past tense. 

10. The verb to be has, in the singular number, a distinct form in expressions of 
this kind, when reference is made to present time ; thus, "If I were, if thou wert, 
if he were" instead of "If I was, if thou wast, if he was." * The plural has no 
distinct form. 

11. Were is often used instead of would be, or should be, and had when employed 
as an auxiliary, instead of xcoidd have, or shoidd have; as, "The city were ruined by 
such a course ;" "James's fortitude had been laudable had he persisted in his first 
intention ;" " The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labors, had 
it been early, had been kind." 

12. The past tense of other verbs is sometimes improperly used in the same 
way as were; as, " Such a policy, while it gladdened the hearts of the poor, would 
in ten years cause a greater advance in the wealth," etc. — Princeton Review. Here 
gladdened is used instead of would gladden. 

* These forms were formerly used promiscuously, at least in the second per- 
son; as, "Before the heavens thou wert." — Milton. 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 



EXERCISES. 



1. In the place of each of the following blanks put a verb In the tense indi- 
cated at the beginning of each paragraph : 

Present Tense. [Simple form of the verb, etc.) 

I We They Boys He John 

Mary Thou You Girls We She 

It They Horses Cows The dog The 

cat .... rats. Eain .... from the clouds. O Lord, thou .... my 
prayer. John .... James. Thou .... thyself. We .... flowers. 

Present-perfect Tense. {Have, has, etc.) 
I .... a letter to-day. George .... his task. I . . . . my friend this 
week. The cat .... a rat. James .... a snake. O Lord, thou .... 
my prayer. Mary .... the book. Thou .... thyself. You .... your 
bonnet. Bad company .... him. I . . . . twenty miles to-day. Tho 
cow .... the corn. 

Past Tense. (In regular verbs ending in ed.) 
He .... my advice. She .... the invitation. I .... a letter yes- 
terday. Alexander .... Darius. I . . . . my friend last week. The 
pupil .... his task yesterday. The cat .... a rat. The girl .... a 
snake. Your friend .... the book. Brutus .... Caesar. He ... . all 
his money. You .... your bonnet. Washington .... the army. Tho 
cow .... the corn. I . . . . twenty miles yesterday. 

Past-perfect Tense. [Had, etc.) 
I .... a letter before you arrived. This boy .... his task when you 
began yours. Your sister .... the book before you saw it. He deceived 
me then, and he .... me before. I . . . . ten miles at six o'clock. The 
sun .... when we walked out. The cow .... the corn before the man 
saw her. He .... all his money when his friend met him. 

Future Tense. (Shall, uriU, etc.) 
I .... a letter to-morrow. The cat .... a rat. I . . . . my friend 
next week. George .... his task to-morrow. You .... your bonnet. 
The gardener .... a snake. The servant .... the book. He .... all 
his money. Bad company .... him. I . . . . twenty miles to-morrow. 
The cow .... the corn. 

Future-perfect Tense. (Shall heme, will hare, etc.) 
I . . . . my letter before the mail arrives. My brother .... the book 
before the bell rings. They .... their task at one o'clock. He .... all 
his money before his friend meets him. The sun .... when we return. 
When we next meet we ... . three times. 



VEKBS. 



79 



2. In what tense is each of the following verbs ? 

He loves truth. She hates deception. I saw your brother yesterday. 
He will return to-morrow. The boy recited his lesson yesterday. My 
little girl has recited her lesson to-day. The laborer has read the book. 
This man rides often. Important events have occurred in this century. 
Bonaparte was sent to Elba. Peace brings happiness. Bad company 
will have ruined him before he learns prudence. War brings misery. 
I will assist you. 

Darius was defeated by Alexander. Spring will return. "We shall 
have dined at one o'clock. He will have gone before two o'clock. He 
has completed his task. Caesar was killed by Brutus. I had written 
my letter before you commenced yours. I shall see him to-morrow. 
Thou wilt be rebuked. Thou hast been deceived. The work had been 
completed when I met you. 

TENSES IN THE DIFFERENT MOODS. 

The indicative mood is the only one that has the six tenses. 

The imperative mood has but one tense, which is generally 
called the present, in reference to the time of giving command ; 
though the action is, of course, to be performed after the time 
of speaking; as, "Cut the wood." In parsing the imperative 
it is not necessary to say any thing about tense. 

The infinitive has two forms or tenses, which are called the 
imperfect and the -perfect; as, "To learn, to have learned" 

The imperfect (sometimes called the present) of the infinitive does 
not refer to any particular time, but denotes an action or state not com- 
pleted at the time referred to by the verb with which it is connected. 
It may be joined with any tense of the verb; as, "I wish to write;" 
"I wished to write;" "I shall wish to write." 

The perfect denotes an action as completed in reference to the 
time of the verb with which it is connected; as, "He is said to have 
written;" "He was said to have written;" "He will be said to have 
written." 

As these forms refer only to the continuance or completion of the 
action, imperfect and perfect are the appropriate names. 



How many tenses has the indicative 

mood? 
The imperative ? 
The infinitive? 



What does the imperfect of the infini- 
tive denote? 
The perfect? 
What is said of these forms? 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

The participle has three forms or tenses in the active voice 
and three in the passive. 

Each voice has the imperfect and the perfect participle. Tfctt 
active voice has also the auxiliary perfect participle, and the 
passive voice has the passive participle. 

The Imperfect Participle denotes the continuance of the 
action or state; as, "John is cutting wood;" "Being loved by 
all, Alice is happy." 

The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of the 
action or state; as, "Having cut the wood, he is making a 
fire;" "The wood having been cut, he will make a fire." 

In the example, "John is cutting wood," the action is represented as 
imperfect or continuing; in "Having cut the wood," the action is repre- 
sented as perfect or completed. 

The Passive Participle merely denotes that the object 
to whose name it belongs is acted upon; as, "The wood was 
cut;" "Mary is loved." 

The Auxiliary Perfect Participle is used to aid in 
forming the perfect tenses; as, "I have loved-" "The wood 
has been cut." 

The passive participle and the auxiliary perfect participle are always 
alike in form. 

Remarks.— 1. The imperfect infinitive may generally be known by the sign 
to before the simple form of the verb ; as, to love. The perfect may be known by 
the sign to have; as, to have loved. 

2. The imperfect participle of the active voice always ends in ing ; as, deserting. 
In the passive voice the imperfect participle is composed of being and the passive 
participle; as, being loved. The perfect participles may be known by the sign 
having; as, having loved, having been loved. In regular verbs the passive and 
auxiliary perfect participles end in ed; as, loved. 

3. The name present, which is generally given to the participle in ing, and the 
name past, which is often given to the perfect participle, are entirely inapplicable 
to these forms. Both these forms may refer to present, past, or future time. Thus, 
" I am writing ;" "I was uriting ;" " I shall be writing ;" "Having cut the wood, he 
is making a fire ;" "Having cut the wood, he made a fire ;" "Homing cut the wood, 
lie will make afire." The imperfect participle denotes an action going on, and 
the perfect participle an action completed, at any time. 

4. The auxiliary perfect participle was originally the passive participle ; but it 
has now become a different thing altogether. Instead of being passive it is now 

How many forms has the participle ? I What does the perfect participle denote ? 
What does the imperfect participle The passive f 

denote? I The auxiliary perfect ? 



VERBS. 81 

active in sense ; and intransitive verbs, which have no passive participle, have the 
auxiliary perfect participle ; as, " I have gone, I have been, I have risen." 

5. The term auxiliary, as applied to this participle, has no reference to the 
relative importance of the verb to have and this participle, but merely denotes that 
this form is one of the elements of the perfect tense. 

6. The passive participle is often incorrectly called the perfect participle. (See 
page 80.) 

7. The signification of some verbs is such that the passive participle in some 
forms of expression denotes completed action ; as, " The house is emptied;" "The 
house is built;" "The letter is written." In such instances the action can not be 
represented as received without being represented as completed. So far as the 
completion of the action is concerned, "The house is built" is equivalent to 
"The house has been built;" but the former sentence denotes an existing state 
rather than a completed action. The name of the agent can not be expressed 
when this form is used to denote an existing state. Thus when we wish merely 
to denote the finished state of the house we do not say, "The house is built by 
John." When we say, " Houses are built by mechanics," or "Every house is built 
by some man," we do not express existing states but general truths. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the place of each of the following blanks put a word of the form indi- 
cated at the beginning of each paragraph : 

Imperfect Infinitive. (Sign to.) 

I wish .... I desire .... my lesson is pleasant. Florence 

wishes .... German. Ella expects .... to the country. The boat is 
expected .... at four o'clock; I hope .... you in Madison. Are you 
willing .... with us ? I am glad .... you. Anna wishes . . . . by all. 
We are anxious .... home. John is determined not .... by any one. 

Perfect Infinitive. (Sign to have.) 
The letter is supposed .... by Julius. He is believed .... his word. 
Brutus is said .... Caesar. James is known .... such things often. 
Alexander is said .... Darius. The house is believed .... on fire by 
robbers. Darius is said .... by Alexander. The wall is supposed .... 
by the Komans. Csesar is said .... by Brutus. 

Imperfect Participle. (Active ending in ing; Passive, being.) 
John is ... . Emma is .... a book. Spring is ... . She saw the 
bird .... its nest. I saw William .... wood. They are .... in the 
grove. The flowers are ... . George is .... a butterfly. He has left 
the place .... by all on account of his meanness. 

Perfect Participle. {Having.) 

I will now go home, .... the elephant that book, she has 

taken another by Alexander, Darius surrendered. A heavy 

rain .... the grass begins to grow. The fort .... the general entered 
the city. That knife .... I must get another you once more, I 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

am satisfied. The time .... we will wait no longer. The dog .... a 

raccoon, we returned a hat, he is no longer bareheaded. That 

house .... we must build another dinner, he is ready to go to 

the field. The horse .... was taken to the stable. 

Passive Participle. (In regular verbs ending ed.) 
Alice is .... by every one. He was .... by the fall. The lesson 
has been .... The sloth is .... to be a very lazy animal. The animal 
is ... . by Goldsmith. The victory was .... by Marius. The door 
will have been .... The work will be .... in a month. The day 
was .... in feasting. The dog should be .... to his owner. The 
apples were .... from the tree. The mob had been .... The wood 
had been .... The garden was .... 

Auxiliary Perfect Participle. (Same in form as Passive.) 
Thomas has .... his task. Emma has .... a letter. They will 

have .... the letters before dinner. The man has .... from his house. 

Martha has .... the book. The ship had .... Kobert has .... a lion. 

The ice has .... I had .... to see you. I had .... my lesson. The 

lady had .... her fan. She has .... you three times. John had .... 

to go. The crowd has .... Emma has .... the apple. Theodore 

has .... a whole page. James has .... the robin. 

2. Which of the following words are in the imperfect infinitive, and which in 
the perfect infinitive? 

I wish to see you. He promised to go with me. She intended to 
write a letter. Jane had intended to write a letter. The army was 
ordered to march. The king is supposed to have escaped in a boat. 
His army is said to have been routed. The man is thought to have 
stolen the jewels. It was her duty to obey. They were anxious to 
remain. He was commanded to cease. John sought to perform his 
duty. I go to instruct him every day. 

3. Which of the following words are imperfect participles, which perfect, 
which passive, and which auxiliary perfect participles? 

James is building a house. Having mended my pen, I will write. 
The moon is shining. The horse, having eaten the corn, is now eating 
hay. The letter was written yesterday. I have neglected my studies. 
Being reviled, he reviled not again. Having torn my coat, I must stay 
at home. I shall be running while you are walking. Having read 
that book, he is waiting for another. Jane is loved. Lucy is admired. 
The general died lamented by all. Virtue being; lost, all is lost. John 
is reading an interesting book. Being with him at the time, I knew all 
about the matter. 



83 



NUMBER AND PERSON. 



The Number and Person of the verb are the modifications 
which it has according to the number and person of its 
subject. 

Thus, in the present tense, with the first person we use love, with 
the second lovest, and with the third loves; as, "I love, thou lovest, 
he loves." Here love is said to be of the first person singular, lovest of 
the second person singular, and loves of the third person singular. 

Remarks.— 1. Some languages have a peculiar form for every person in both 
numbers ; but in English there are not so many separate forms. The second per- 
son singular has a form appropriated to itself in all the tenses, and the third 
person singular has a distinct form of the verb in the present tense ; the present 
of the verb to have retaining this form when used as an auxiliary in the present- 
perfect. There is no other change in regular verbs on account of the number and 
person of the subject 

2. The three persons in the plural are always alike, and, with the exception of 
the verb to be, the same as the first person singular. 

The infinitive mood and the participles, as they have no subject, are 
without number and person. 

Remark. — The infinitive is sometimes used as a finite verb and takes a subject ; 
but it is not varied on account of the number and person of the subject. 

The imperative mood has usually only the second person; but it 
sometimes takes the other persons; as, 

"Retire we to our chamber." — Shakespeare. 
"Ruin seize thee, ruthless king! 

Confusion on thy banners wait!" — Gray. 
"Swift fly the years, and rise the expected morn." — Pope. 
"Laugh those that can, weep those that may." — Scott. 
"Thrive I as I may." — Shakespeare. 
"Commence we now that higher state, 

Now do thy will as angels do." — Montgomery. 
"My soul, turn from them — turn we to survey." — Goldsmith. 
". . . Long live the king! 

And Gilpin, long live he!" — Cowper. 
" Cursed be I that did so." — Shakespeare. 



What is meant by the number and per- 
son of the verb ? 

What is said of the infinitive mood and 
the participle? 



What is said of the infinitive when used 
as a finite verb ? 

What is said of the persons of the im- 
perative mood? 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

The verbs in such expressions as "Be it enacted," "Be it so," "So 
help me God," "So do God to Abner," "Hallowed be thy name," "Thy 
kingdom come," " God above deal between thee and me," belong to the 
third person of the imperative. 

Remarks.— 1. Instead of some of these forms it is more common to use the 
infinitive mood with the second person imperative of the verb let and the objective 
case of the noun; as, "Let him fall;" "Let us rest here." Let is often used in 
this way even when there is no command addressed to any one ; as, " Let there 
be light." 

2. The first and third persons of the imperative are not " abridgments " of the 
forms with let, nor are they in any way derived from these forms. They are 
among the oldest forms in the language ; as, " He that hath eeris of herynge hear 
he."—Wiclif. They are derived from the Anglo-Saxon subjunctive employed as 
an imperative ; as, " Si thin nama gehalgod " (be thy name hallowed) ; " Fare we 
on tunas " (go we to the towns). 

EXERCISES. 
In what number and person is each of the following verbs? 

I write. Joseph writes. Thou writest. We write. They write. 
You write. You will learn. They have learned. Thou hadst learned. 
"We shall have learned. They will have learned. Margaret will go. 
Thou wilt go. Kobert shall go. You will go. James had gone. 

Does John write? Dost thou write ? Do we write? Do you write? 
Do they write? Will you learn? Have they learned? Will they 
have learned? Will Mary go? Did Susan run? 

John does not write. Thou dost not write. They will not have 
learned. Thou hadst not learned. They will not come. Kobert shall 
not go. Thy will be done. Stay we here. Heaven protect us. God 
bless you. Be it decreed. Die thou, and die our fear. Long live she 
so, and long live you to think so. Perish the baubles ! 

CONJUGATION. 
The Conjugation of a Verb is the regular arrangement 
of its parts according to the voices, moods, tenses, numbers, 
and persons. 

The only regular terminations added to verbs are esi, s, ed, edst, and 
ing. Thus, 

Pain, painest, pains, pained, painedst, paining. 

Drop, droppest, drops, dropped, droppedst, dropping. 

Love, lovest, loves, loved, lovedst, loving. 

Carry, carriest, carries, carried, carriodst. carrying. 
(See General Rules for Spelling, Hi, v, and vii.) 
All other changes are made by the use of auxiliaries. 

What is conjugation? | What are the regular terminations? 



VERBS. 85 

The third person singular of the present formerly ended in eth. 
This termination is still sometimes used in the solemn style. Con- 
tractions sometimes take place; as, sayst for sayest. 

In adding s, the same changes take place that occur in forming the 
plural of nouns; as, wish, wishes; go, goes; tarry, tarries. 

The Principal. Parts are the imperfect infinitive, the past 
indicative, and the auxiliary perfect participle, which is the same 
in form as the passive participle. When these are known all 
the parts of the verb may be formed by using the proper 
terminations and auxiliaries. 

In regular verbs all that is necessary to be known is the 
imperfect infinitive. 

The present indicative is the same as the imperfect infinitive with 
the sign to omitted, except in the verb to be, which has am. 

Conjugation of the Verb To Love in the Active Voice. 
principal parts. 

IMPERFECT INFINITIVE. PAST INDICATIVE. AUX. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

Love. Loved. Loved. 

indicative mood. 

SINGULAR. PRESENT TENSE. pLURAL> 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. Ye or you love, 

3. He loves. 3. They love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. » 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

What are the principal parts? 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

SINGULAR. FUTURE TENSE. pLURA ^ 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. AVe shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved. 3. They shall or will have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye, or love you. 

Complete with the less usual Forms : 

1. Love I, 1. Love we, 

2. Love thou, 2. Love you, 

3. Love he. 3. Love they. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
IMPERFECT tense. perfect tense. 

To love. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

IMPERFECT. PERFECT. AUXILIARY PERFECT. 

Loving. Having loved. Loved. 

Remarks.— 1. For the sake of emphasis the verb do is used as an auxiliary in 
the present and past tenses with the infinitive ; also in the imperative ; as, 

PRESENT TENSE. INDICATIVE MOOD. pAgT ^^ 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He does love. 3. They do love. 3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

Singular. IMPERATIVE MOOD. ph(ral 

2. Do thou love. 2. Do you love, or do ye love. 

2. Do is sometimes used when shall or should is omitted; as, "If thou do 
repent." Sometimes also when may is omitted; as, "That the shame of thy 
nakedness do not appear." — Rev. iii, 18. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Conjugate the following verbs: 
Attack, defeat, comprehend, interpose, learn, wish, play, follow. 

2. Name the first person singular of each tense of the indicative of the fol- 
lowing verbs, the second person of the imperative, and the infinitive and the 
participles : 

Paint, gather, look, try, succeed, intermit, reply, multiply. 



VERBS. 87 

3. In what mood, tense, number, and person is each of the following verbs? 

I have loved. John walked. We learn. They have succeeded. 
1 shall form. You have defeated. They will have completed. Learn 
thou. Thou hast waited. Ye have complied. Wait ye. Thou hadst 
intended. I had expected. George will learn. God forbid. 

Conjugation of the Irregular Verb To Be. 
principal parts. 

IMPERFECT INFINITIVE. PAST INDICATIVE. AUX. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

Be. Was. Been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

SINGULAR. PRESENT TENSE. pLTJKAL 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast (or wert), 2. You were, 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

1. I were, ^ 1. We were, 

2. Thou wert, Y Conditional Form. 2. You were, 

3. He were. J 3. They were. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been. 3. They shall or will have been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



SINGULAR. 1MIJJlvaiiviJ 1,IVV ^ PLURAL. 

2. Be, or be thou, or do thou be. 2. Be, or be ye, or be you. 

Complete with the less usual Forms. 

1. Be I, 1. Be we, 

2. Be thou, 2. Be you, 

3. Be he. 3. Be they. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

IMPERFECT. PERFECT. AUXILIARY PERFECT. 

Being. Having been. Been. 

Remarks. — 1. The great irregularity in the conjugation of this verb results 
from the fact that it has beeu derived from more than one source, one form being 
derived from one Anglo-Saxon verb, and another from a different one. Thus part 
of it is derived from wesan and part from beon, both signifying to be. Other parts 
are derived from other sources. 

2. Be and beest were formerly used in the present ; as, " We be twelve brethren." 
Gen. xlii, 32. " There be of protestants." — Milton. " Thus much we all know and 
confess, that they be not of the highest nature."— Bacon. "If thou beest he."— 
Milton. "I think it be thine, indeed." — Shakespeare. 

3. This form of the present is sometimes, though seldom, used by modern 
authors after if, though, etc. ; as, " If he be a knave, I am deceived ; that is, if 
he is. Ordinarily, when be is used after if, though, etc., it is in the infinitive, shall, 
should, etc., being understood ; as, "If he be detected, he will be punished ;" that 
is, if he should be. 

4. This verb has not the emphatic forms of the present and past tenses. 

5. It has been observed (page 77) that the past tense of verbs in general is em- 
ployed in suppositions referring to present time when the thing supposed does not 
exist ; as, " If ye loved me, ye would keep my commandments ;" " If I had a pen, 
I would write." To express suppositions of this kind this verb has were and wcrl 
instead of was and wast. If I was refers to past time and leaves it uncertain 
whether I was or was not; If I were refers to present time and implies that I am 
not; as, " If I were you, I would do that." This conditional form is found in the 
singular number only, suppositions of this kind being expressed in the plural by 
the common form. 

Were and wert, as has been stated, belonged originally to the past tense in a 
particular dialect of the Anglo-Saxon language. Many English writers have used 
wert as the second person singular of the common past tense; as, "Before the 
heavens thou wert.' l, — Milton. " Whate'er thou art or wert."— Byron. " Remember 
what thou werU'—Dryden. "I knew thou wert not slow to hear."— Addison. "All 
this thou werV — Pope. 

6. Were is often used for would be, and had been for would have been. 

EXERCISES. 

In what mood, tense, number, and person is each of the following verbs? 

I have been. Be thou. He is. We shall have been. I shall be. 
Thou art. He was. They had been. Be you. We have been. Be we. 
If I were. It* thou wert. 



VERBS. »y 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
The passive voice is formed by using the passive participle 
with the verb to be. 

Conjugation of the Verb To Love in the Passive Voice, 
indicative mood. 

SINGULAR. PRESENT TENSE. pLUR ^ 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been loved, 1. "We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved, 1. "We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

1. I were loved, ^ 1. "We were loved, 

2. Thou wert loved, I c ™%Mmal 2 . You were loved, 

3. He were loved. J 3. They were loved. 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been loved, 1. "We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will be loved, 1. "We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, 2. You shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall or will have been loved, 1. We shall or will have been loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been loved, 2. You shall or will have been loved, 

3. He shall or will have been loved. 3. They shall or will have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 

How is the passive voice formed? 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

Complete with the less usual Forms : 
singular. plural. 

1. Be I loved, 1. Be we loved, 

2. Be thou loved, 2. Be you loved, 

3. Be he loved. 3. Be they loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be loved. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
IMPERFECT. PERFECT. PASSIVE. 

Being loved. Having been loved. Loved. 

Remarks. — 1. The passive voice being nothing more than the verb to be with 
the passive participle, the remarks under to be apply to the passive. 

2. Certain intransitive verbs have sometimes the form of the passive voice, 
without being passive in sense: "He is gone;" "The Lord is risen indeed." 
These do not admit after them the name of the agent with the preposition by, 
as transitive verbs in the passive voice do. 

Thus, we may say, "James is loved by John;" but not "James is gone by 
John." "James has gone," and "James is gone," both represent James as having 
done something, and not as having had something done to him. Has gone refers 
more particularly to the action of going, and is gone to the state of being absent. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Conjugate the following verbs in the passive voice : 
Follow, pain, admit, carry, permit, advise, examine. 

2. Name the first person singular of all the tenses of the indicative in the 
passive voice of the following verbs, the second person of the imperative, together 
with the infinitive and the participles. 

Attend, persuade, remove, instruct, convince, appease. 
3. In what voice, mood, tense, number, and person is each of the following verbs? 

Darius was defeated. You have been deceived. I have been loved. 
They were arrested. The letter has been written. Darkness will have 
disappeared. Thou wilt be envied. The time has come. The grass 
has been cut. The mower had cut the grass. They had detected John. 
John had been detected. They will have completed the work. The 
work has been completed. Hallowed be thy name. 

Thy kingdom come. Stand we to defend our rights. With virtue 
be we armed. Fall not that curse upon us. Rise we by morning light. 
Be this our motto. Go from thy native land. Come unto the yellow 
sands. Read this letter carefully. 

Take this my parting gift. Be warned by his fate. Go not into 
such company. Cease to do evil. Learn to do good. Make we our 
march toward Birnam. 



VERBS. 91 

PROGEESSIVE FORM. 
The forms which denote the action or state as imperfect, 
or continuing, are composed of the imperfect participle and 
the verb to be. Thus, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
SINGULA*. P^SENT TENSE. pLUKAL 

1. I am writing, 1. We are writing, 

2. Thou art writing, 2. You are writing, 

3. He is writing. 3. They are writing. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been writing, 1. We have been writing, 

2. Thou hast been writing, 2. You have been writing, 

3. He has been writing. 3. They have been writing. 
[The pupil may go through the other tenses in the same way.] 

Remarks.— 1. Some verbs, especially such as denote affections or operations of 
the mind, in their simple forms express actions that can not be performed without 
being completely performed or actions that are in their nature continuous, and 
such verbs can not take the progressive form. " I am loving," for instance, is not 
good English. 

Among verbs of this kind are love, hate, desire, despise, respect, revere, venerate, 
hope, despair, wish, know, understand. Verbs of sensation, if they denote merely 
impressions made on the mind through the senses, can not take the progressive 
form ; but verbs of sensation which represent the sentient being as active may 
take the progressive form; as, "I see him;" "I am looking at him;" "I hear 
him;" "I am listening to him." 

2. Expressions of the same form are sometimes used in a passive sense ; as, 
"The house is building;" "While these arrangements were making." 

3. In modern usage the same idea is often expressed in another way; as, 
"What lies at the bottom of the question which is now being discussed every 
where?" — Dr. Arnold. "He struck the Count de Harcourt a violent blow as he 
was being led away." — G. P. E. James. " Mr. Pickwick's face while his tale was being 
read would have attracted the attention of any man alive." — Dickens. * 

Besides that it is used to make up an incorrect form, being in each of the pas- 
sages cited above is superfluous, the sense being expressed without it. "What lies 
at the bottom of the question which is now discussed every where ?" "He struck 
the Count de Harcourt a violent blow as he ivas led away." " Mr. Pickwick's face 
while his tale was read would have attracted the attention of any man alive." 

This modern form is very seldom used among writers of the highest class. 
The best writers say, " The house is building," not " The house is being built." "An 
act not less horrible was perpetrating in Eskdale." — Macaiday. "Chelsea hospital 
was building." — Id. " The nearest chapel where divine service was performing."— Id. 

* Dickens in his later works made use of the correct form : "Among the mighty 
store of wonderful chains that are for ever forging." — Edwin Drood. " The street 
lamps were lighting." — Little Dorrit. 

How are forms which denote the action or state as imperfect composed? 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

" This new tragedy was acting. "—Edward Everett. " The fortress was building."— 
Irving. " Which have been made or are making."— Henry Clay. " The whilst this 
play is playing. " — Shakespeare. "While the temple of the Lord was building. " — 
Milton. "Designs are carrying on against their liberties." — Locke. "Whilst this 
necessary movement was making." — Cooper. "An attempt is making in the English 
parliament."— Daniel Webster. " While these things were transacting in England." 
—Bancroft. "The excellent edition of Shakespeare now ]jubli^hing in Boston."— 
George P. Marsh. "For me the final chapter is now writing; it may be already 
written."— John Bright. "Another weapon was secretly forging."— Motley. "A 
considerable armament then equipping in the port of Malaga." — Prmcott. 

"The house is being built" does not express what is intended; being built 
denotes existence in the state expressed by built; as, "Our house being built, we 
have now a home." Being denotes actual existence in the state expressed by 
the word with which it is connected, not co-ming into existence. Being when 
referring to present time has the same meaning that is has ; being, the participle, 
assuming what is, the indicative, asserts. Compare these two sentences: "He is 
wealthy, and he can afford to do this ;" "Being wealthy, he can afford to do this." 
By employing is we assert that he is wealthy, and by employing being we assume 
that he is wealthy. Each of the sentences expresses present existence in the state 
denoted by wealthy, not coming into that state. If instead of an adjective we use 
a participle after is and being, there is no change in the meaning of either of them, 
being still assuming the same thing that is asserts. " The letter is written, and I 
will now seal it;" "The letter being written, I will now seal it" Here being as 
well as is denotes actual existence in the state expressed by written, is asserting 
and being assuming. If is does not denote coming into being, and being does not 
denote coming into being, and built does not denote coming into the state expressed 
by built, how can is being built denote coming into the state expressed by built f It 
would be better for those who are not satisfied with the well-established classical 
form to say, "The house is becoming built or getting built"— coming into the state 
expressed by built. 

4. Those words in ing in such expressions as "The house is building" are 
really gerunds, or participial nouns, not participles or verbal adjectives. A gerund 
merely presents in the form of a noun what is denoted by the verb, and whether 
a gerund in any particular passage is active or passive in sense is determined by 
the context. In the first of the following passages from Shakespeare killing has an 
active, in the second a passive sense : " I promised to eat all of his killing ;" " How 
'scaped I killing when I crossed you so!" In the form under consideration the 
gerund has a passive sense. 

The gerund, whether employed in an active or a passive sense, had originally 
the preposition on expressed before it. On became o', which is so often used for 
on by Shakespeare, and in rapid pronunciation o' could not be distinguished from 
a, which became established as a preposition. " The house is on building " became 
"The house is o' building," "The house is abuilding," "The house is building;" 
building in this last form being the object of a preposition understood. Carlyle 
goes back to one of the more ancient forms when he writes, " Their gallows must 
even now be o' building." Shakespeare uses the form with the preposition a : as, 
" Even in their promise as it is a making ;" "She has been too long a talking of;" 
"I would have him nine years a killing." The preposition in, which in Anglo- 
Saxon is another form of on, has been \iscd ; as, "Forty and six yean was this 
temple in building."— English Bible. "Whilst these sentences are in Trading." — 
Book of Common Prayer. " The preliminaries were not lonp in arranging."— 

No ambiguity need result from the use of such expressions as "The 
building." If the subject denotes something incapable of performing the act, the 
form must of course be passive in sense. No one but au advocate of the form is 



VERBS. 93 

being built would think of stopping to ask " What is the house building?" " The 
men are ■paying " is in itself an ambiguous expression, because men are capable of 
performing the act. Such expressions as " The man is binding," " The criminal is 
punishing," are exposed to a similar objection. In such cases some other forms 
should be employed ; as, " The men are receiving their pay ;" " They are binding 
the man ;" "The criminal is undergoing punishment." 

5. The modern innovation was for some time confined to the present and past 
tenses; but one recent grammarian dashes " without any mitigation or remorse of 
voice" through all the tenses: "I am being smitten, I have been being smitten, 
I was being smitten, I had been being smitten, I shall be being smitten, I shall 
have been being smitten, I should be being smitten, I should have been being 
smitten," etc.— English Grammar, by C. P. Mason, B. A., Fellow of University College, 
London. When these forms shall have been admitted, or even shall have been 
being admitted, into the English language there will be an urgent demand for a 
new language on the part of several persons who will not have been being smitten 
with the beauties of the new style of English. 

EXERCISES. 

Give the progressive form of each of the following verbs: 
Learn, follow, strive, work, place, describe, protect, beguile. 

NEGATIVE FORM. 
In simple negation the adverb not is placed after the verb, 
or after the first auxiliary; sometimes after the object of a 
transitive verb; as, "I love not this man;" "I do not love 
you;" "I love you not." 

Not is placed before the infinitive and the participle; as, 
"Not to love;" "Not loving;" and after the subject in the 
imperative mood when the subject is expressed; as, "Love 
thou not." 

The simple forms of the present and past tenses are seldom used in 
this negative form. 

EXAMPLES. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Present, .... I do not love. I am not loved. 

Present-perf. . I have not loved. I have not been loved. 

Past, I did not love. I was not loved. 

Past-perfect, . I had not loved. I had not been loved. 

Future, .... I shall or will not love. I shall or will not be loved. 

j? , , J I shall or will not have I shall or will not have been 

*uture-perj. j loye(L love(L 

Where is not placed in simple negation ? | With the infinitive and the participle ? 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Love not, or love thou not, or do Be not loved, or be thou not loved, 
not love, or do thou not love. or do not thou be loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Imperfect, . . . Not to love. Not to be loved. 

Perfect, .... Not to have loved. Not to have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect, . . . Not loving. Not being loved. 

Perfect, .... Not having loved. Not having been loved. 

Note.— The first person only is given. The pupil may name all the persons 
if it is thought necessary. 

EXERCISES. 

Conjugate the following verbs with the adverb not: 

Follow, deceive, persuade, attend, perceive, convince, contend. 

INTERKOGATIVE FORM. 
In interrogative sentences the subject is placed after the 
first auxiliary, or after the verb when there is no auxiliary; 
as, "Lovest thou?" "Dost thou love?" 

None but the indicative mood can be used in interrogation. 
EXAMPLES. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Present, .... Do I love? Am I loved? 

Present-perf. . Have I loved? Have I been loved? 

Past, Did I love? Was I loved? 

Past-perfect, . Had I loved? Had 1 been loved? 

Future, .... Shall I love? Shall I be loved? 

Future-perf . Shall I have loved? Shall I have been loved 

EXERCISES. 

Conjugate the following verbs in the interrogative form: 
Defeat, desert, examine, deprive, gladden, advise, persuade. 

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE FOKM. 
In interrogative negative sentences the subject is placed 
after the first auxiliary, and followed by the adverb not; if no 
auxiliary is used, the subject and the adverb follow the verb. 



VERBS. 



95 



EXAMPLES. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

Present, .... Do I not love ? 
Present-perf. . Have I not loved? 

Past, Did I not love? 

Past-perfect, . Had I not loved? 
Future, .... Shall I not love? 
Future-perf. . Shall I not have loved? 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Am I not loved? 
Have I not been loved? 
Was I not loved ? 
Had I not been loved? 
Shall I not be loved ? 
Shall I not have been loved ? 



EXERCISES. 

Conjugate the following verbs in the interrogative negative form: 
Persuade, betray, deceive, envy, arm, instruct, perceive, offend. 



IKKEGULAE VEKBS. 
An Irregular Verb is one which does not form its past 
tense and auxiliary perfect participle by adding ed. 

There are about one hundred and seventy irregular verbs, some of 
which have the past tense and the auxiliary perfect participle alike in 
form, and others have them different. 

Some verbs have two forms of the past tense, or of the auxiliary 
perfect participle, or of both. In the list the preferable forms are 
placed first; those which stand in the second place being in some 
instances almost obsolete. 

List of Irregular Verbs. 



Imperfect of the Infinitive. 


Past. 


Auxiliary Perf. Participle. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, awaked, 


awaked. 


Be, 


was, 


been. 


Bear, 


bore, bare, 


borne, born. 


Become, 


became, 


become. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Beget, 


begot, 


begotten, begot. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Bend, 


bent, bended, 


bent, bended. 


Bereave, 


bereft, bereaved, 


bereft, bereaved. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Beset, 


beset, 


beset. 


Bet, 


betted, bet, 


betted, bet. 


Bid, 


bade, bid, 


bidden, bid. 



What is an irregular verb? 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Imperfect of the Infinitive. 


Past. 


Auxiliary Perf. Participle. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blend, 


blended, blent, 


blended, blent. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, builded, 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burned, burnt, 


burned, burnt. 


Burst, 


burst, bursted, 


burst, bursted 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catched, 


caught, catched. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave (to split),* 


clove, cleft, 


cloven, cleft 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept 


Crow, 


crew, crowed, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut 


Dare (to venture),! 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, dealed, 


dealt, dealed. 


Dig, 


dug, digged, 


dug, digged. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, dwelled, 


dwelt, dwelled. 


Eat, 


ate, eat, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Forbear, 


forbore, forbarc, 


forborne. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, 


got, gotten. 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gilt 


Gird, 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


Give, 


gave. 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 



* Cleave, to adhere, is regular. Clave was once used as the past tense. 
fDare, to challenge, is regular. 





VERBS. 


97 


Imperfect of the Infinitive. 


Past. 


Auxiliary Perf. Participle. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graved, graven. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Hang,* 


hung, hanged, 


hung, hanged. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Heave, 


heaved, hove, 


heaved, hoven. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewed, hewn. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid, 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


kneeled, knelt, 


kneeled, knelt 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden, laded. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent 


Let, 


let, 


let 


Lie,f 


lay, 


lain. 


Light, 


lighted, lit, 


lighted, lit 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant 


Meet, 


met, 


met 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mowa. 


Pen (to inclose), J 


penned, pent, 


penned, pent 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


put 


Quit, 


quitted, quit, 


quitted, quit 


Bap, 


rapped, rapt, 


rapped, zapt 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rung, rang, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, rive*i. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, sawi-h 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought 


Seethe, 


seethed, sod, 


seethed, soddeh. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent 



*Hang, to take life by hanging, is generally regular. 
t Lie, to utter falsehoods, is regular. 
X Pen, to write, is regular. 

9 



98 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Imperfect of the Infinitive. 


Past. 


Auxiliary Perf. Participle. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaved, shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


sheared, shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, showed. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, shrank, 


shrunk, shrunken. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept 


Slide, 


slid, slided, 


slidden, slid, slided. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, slitted, 


slit, slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled, smelt, 


smelled, smelt. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, sowed. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, speeded, 


sped, speeded. 


Spell, 


spelled, spelt, 


spelled, spelt. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent 


Spill, 


spilt, spilled, 


spilt, spilled. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stay, 


staid, stayed, 


staid, stayed. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strewn, strewed. 


Stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, stricken. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, strived, 


striven, strived. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, strowed. 


Swear, 


swore, sware, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweated, sweat, 


sweated, sweat. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelled, swollen. 


Swim, 


swum, swam, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 





VEKBS. 


9< 


perfect of the Infinitive. 


Past. 


Auxiliary Per/. Participle. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived, throve, 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


. Tread, 


trod, trode, 


trodden, trod. 


Wake, 


waked, woke, 


waked. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, weaved, 


woven, weaved. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Wet, 


wet, wetted, 


wet, wetted. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked, wrought. 


Wind, 


wound, winded, 


wound, winded. 


Wring, 


wrung, wringed, 


wrung, wringed. 


Write, 


wrote, writ, 


written. 



Remarks.— 1. In other grammars, bear, to carry, and bear, to bring forth, are set 
down as two distinct verbs, the former with the participle borne, and the latter 
with the participle born. 

Dr. Webster says, "A very useful distinction is observed by good authors, who 
in the sense of produced or brought forth write this word born; but in the sense of 
carried write it borne." It is true that in the sense of carried the participle is always 
written borne ; but it is not true that in the sense of produced or brought forth it is 
always written born. We do not say, " The tree has born fruit ;" or, " The mother 
has born children;" but, "The tree has borne fruit," and "The mother has borne 
children." Born is never used in the active voice in any sense ; and never in the 
passive followed by the preposition by. 

2. The participle of drink is given in some grammars drunk or drank; in others 
drank or drunk ; in others drank only. Formerly drank was occasionally used as 
the participle, and it is now generally used by writers of an inferior class ; but 
authors of the first class use drunk as the participle. Such writers say, "I have 
drunk," not " I have drank;" " Toasts were drunk," and not " Toasts were drank." 

"He on honey-dew hath fed, 
And drunk the milk of paradise."— Coleridge. 
"Here he had danced and drunk until midnight."— W. Irving. "Not at all the 
less had the one drunk no brandy." — Be Quincey. " Conachar has drunk of our 
cup, and eaten of our bread." — Sir W. Scott. "Wine is drunk, and comfits are 
eaten." — Id. " The toast is drunk with a good deal of cheering." — Bickens. " Claret 
equal to the best which was drunk in London." — Macaulay. "Odoherty's health 
being drunk." — Prof. Wilson. " I had eaten and drunk."— Sydney Smith. " He had 
drunk largely."— Thackeray. " Wine was more generally drunk than now." — Haw- 
tliorne. " Nobody can write the life of a man but those who have eat and drunk 
and lived in social intercourse with him." — Br. Johnson. "I have not drunk a 
glass of wine for twelve months." — Hood. 

3. Compounds generally follow the conjugation of the simple word ; as, over- 
come, overcame, overcome; outdo, outdid, outdone. 



Errors in the Use of Irregular Verbs. 

The following are some of the errors most frequently committed in 
the use of irregular verbs : 



100 



ETYMOLOGY. 



1. The past tense is used for the auxiliary perfect or passive parti- 
ciple; as, " I have went" for " I have gone;" "I have rose" for "I have 
risen." The following are the verbs in the use of which this error is 
most commonly committed : 



Arise, 


break, 


eat, 


go, 


slay, 


take, 


awake, 


choose, 


fall, 


rise, 


speak, 


tear, 


become, 


come, 


fly. 


ride, 


steal, 


wear, 


befall, 


drink, 


forsake, 


run, 


strive, 


weave, 


begin, 


drive, 


freeze, 


shake, 


swear, 


write. 



2. The participle is used for the past tense; as, " I done" for " I did;" 
" I seen " for " I saw" The following are the verbs in the use of which 
this error is most commonly committed: Become, begin, come, drink, do, 
run, see. 

3. The transitive verbs lag and set are often used for the intransitive 
verbs lie and sit, and the regular transitive verb raise is often used for 
the irregular intransitive verb rise; as, " He laid down" for "He lag 
down;" "He has laid down" for "He has lain down;" "He set down" 
for "He sat down;" "He has set down" for "He has sat down;" "He 
raised up " for " He rose up ;" " He has raised up " for " He has risen up." 

To help the pupil to avoid these very common errors the transitive 
verb lag is conjugated by the side of the intransitive verb lie, and the 
transitive verb set by the side of the intransitive verb sit. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 



TRANSITIVE. 

Hay; 

Thou layest ; 
He lays ; 
We lay; 
You lay ; 
They lay. 

I have laid, etc. 

I laid; 

Thou laidest; 
He laid ; 
We laid; 
You laid ; 
They laid. 



INTRANSITIVE. 

Hie; 

Thou liest; 
He lies; 
We lie; 
You lie ; 
They lie. 



TRANSITIVE. 

I set; 

Thou settest; 
He sets ; 
We set; 
You set; 
They set. 



PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

I have lain, etc. I have set, etc. 



PAST TENSE. 



Hay; 

Thou layest ; 
He lay; 
We lay; 
You lay ; 
They lay. 



I set; 

Thou settest; 
He set ; 
We set; 
Yen Bet; 
They set. 



INTRANSITIVE. 

I sit; 

Thou sittest; 
He sits; 
We sit ; 
You sit ; 
They sit. 

I have sat, etc. 

I sat; 

Thou sattest; 
He sat; 
We sat ; 

Y«>u sat; 
They sat. 



VEEBS. 



101 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
TRANSITIVE. INTRANSITIVE. TRANSITIVE. INTRANSITIVE. 

I had laid, etc. I had lain, etc. I had set, etc. I had sat, etc. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

I shall lay, etc. I shall lie, etc. I shall set, etc. I shall sit, etc. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

I shall have laid. I shall have lain. I shall have set. I shall have sat. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Lie, etc. Set, etc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
IMPERFECT. 

To lie. To set. 

PERFECT. 

To have lain. To have set. 
PARTICIPLES. 

IMPERFECT. 

Laying. Lying. Setting. 

PERFECT. 

Having laid. Having lain. Having set. 



Lay, etc. 

To lay. 

To have laid. 



Sit, etc. 

To sit. 

To have sat. 

Sitting. 
Having sat. 



Note. — Lay, set, and raise, being transitive, require each of them an object; as, 
"He laid the book down;" "He laid himself down;" "He set the child on the 
floor;" "He raised the child up;" "He raised himself up." 

Set is intransitive in such expressions as "The sun sets. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following: 

The tree was shook by the wind. He raised up from the bed. 
He set down on the sofa. While yet young he became gray, in 
consequence of the misfortune that had befell him. He begun well, 
but did not continue as he had began. The wind blowed down the 
tree. The apples had fell off. The branches were badly broke. 

A speaker was chose by the meeting. John come down stairs in 
great haste. After the letter had came I found it was so badly wrote 
that it could not be read. The ball was throwed over the fence. He 
had mistook the meaning of the phrase. The water is froze. I seen 
the horse run. I done it myself. The boat was ladened with sugar. 

He drunk too much water. The water was all drank up. This 
cloth is well wove. He had went away before I come. John done 



102 ETYMOLOGY. 

well. The bottle is broke. He seen it fall. The horses were drove to 
pasture. You have mistook him. A race was ran. Yesterday I run 
all the way to school. My shoes are almost wore out. The leaves of 
the book are tore. Somebody has took my pen. 

The sick man has arose from the bed. He has awoke already. 
They had became very ill. They had eat the peaches. The book has 
fell down. The bird has flew from the tree. He had rose before I seen 
him. The speech was well spoke. Some one has stole the ring. You 
have strove hard. He has swore not to do so. 

James laid down on the grass. He is now laying on the bed. He 
set up for some time. Mary is setting on a stool. She has set there a 
long time. Having set up for some time, the sick man is now laying 
down. He had scarcely raised up before he fainted. Raise up from 
the floor and set on a chair. "Why are you laying there? Where is 
the hen setting? She has laid down. I will lay down. You ought 
to have laid down before. Are you able to raise up? The hen has 
forsook her nest. The colt drunk from the stream. 

Conjugation of the Irregular Verb To Take. 
principal parts. 

IMPERFECT INFINITIVE. PAST INDICATIVE. AUX. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

Take. Took. Taken. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Present, ... I take. I am taken. 

Present-perf. I have taken. I have been taken. 

Past, .... I took. I was taken. 

Past-perfect, I had taken. I had been taken. 

Future, ... I shall or will take. I shall or will be taken. 

Future-perf I shall or will have taken. I shall or will have been taken. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Take, or take thou, or do thou take. Be taken, or be thou taken, etc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Imperfect, . To take. To be taken. 

Perfect, ... To have taken. To have been taken. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect, . Taking. Being taken. 

Perfect, . . . Having taken. Having been taken. 

Aux. Perfect, Taken. Taken. 



VEEBS. 103 

DEFECTIVE VEKBS. 
Defective Verbs are such as are remarkable for wanting 
some of their parts. The following is a list of them: 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PAST. PBESENT. PAST. 

.... Shall, should. 

.... Will, would. 

.... quoth. 

CAN. 

Remarks— 1. The original meaning of can is to know; as, "I can but smal 
grammere." — Chaucer. So in the past tense: 

"A few terms coude he, two or three, 
Which he had learned out of some decree." — Chaucer. 

It was not confined to the present and past tenses. Thus Chaucer says, " She 
should not con ne mo we attaine ;" that is, she should not know how nor he able 
to attain. 

With respect to some things, to know how is to be able to do them. Thus, 
"I know how to read," and " I am able to read," convey the same idea. Hence 
can came to denote ability, while its signification of knowledge has gradually dis- 



'RESENT. 


PAST. 


PRESENT. 


Can, 


could ; 


Must, 


May, 


might; 


Ought, 



MAY. 

2. May had originally the signification that can now has. Thus, "I may all 
thyngis in him that comforteth me." — Wiclif. 

It was sometimes written mowe,* and was not confined to the present and past 
tenses. Thus Wiclif says, " Many seeken to entre, and they schulen not mowe;" 
that is, shall not may, or be able. "Which thou shalt mowe suffre."— Chaucer. 
"Despoiled of mowing to do yvel." — Chaucer. 

This word now generally denotes power as granted by some one, that is, liberty 
or permission; as, "You may go;" that is, you have permission to go. It some- 
times denotes a wish; as, "May you prosper." 

With the perfect infinitive, and sometimes with the imperfect, it denotes 
possibility; as, "He may have written;" that is, it is possible that he wrote. 
"He may write perhaps." Here may denotes possibility. 

COULD AND MIGHT. 

3. Could and might have, in general, the .same relation to can and may that 
should and would have to shall and will. 

MUST. 

4. Must denotes necessity. When it is used to denote a past necessity a change 
is made in the verb with which it is connected ; as, " I determined to tell him, for 
he must have learned it some time or other ;" that is, he was necessitated to learn 
it. It was formerly the past tense of mote. 

*A fact which shows that words now in use among the common people only 
are not always corruptions is that the old form mought is still used in some places 
for might. This word occurs frequently in old writers ; thus, " Winter and summer 
they mought well fare."— Spenser. 

What are defective verbs? 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

But this is not the usual signification of must with the perfect infinitive. " He 
must have written this letter" means it is necessary to believe that he wrote it; 
not he was compelled or necessitated to write it. 

OUGHT. 

5. Ought was originally the past tense of owe; as, " He said this other day you 
ought him a thousand pound." — Shakespeare. When ougld, now used as a present 
tense, refers to past time a change is made in the infiuitive with which it is con- 
nected, as in the case of must. Thus, "He ought to go" means that he is under 
obligation to go, while " He ought to have gone" means that he was under obliga- 
tion to go. 

QUOTH. 

6. Quoth is used only in the first and third persons of the past tense; as, 
"Quoth I," "Quoth he." 

Different Forms. 

7. Must is not varied. The others are varied in the second person singular 
only. Can has canst and couldst or couldest; may has mayst or mayest and mightest 
or mightst; ought has oughtcst. Will as a principal verb is regular; as, " He willed 
it to be so." 

8. The word beware was originally two words, the verb be and the adjective 
ware; as, "Be ye war of the sour dough of the Farisees and Saducees." — Wtelif. 
It is accordingly used in those tenses only in which be occurs in the verb to be; as, 
" Beware of him ;" "I will beware of him." 

9. In methinks, which is now obsolescent, thinks is used in the sense of seems, 
and me is an Anglo-Saxon dative=to me. " Methinks I hear his voice." Here the 
proposition "I hear his voice" is the subject of thinks— " That I hear his voice 
seems to me." Methought also is sometimes used; as, " Methought I saw my late 
espoused saint."— Milton. 

AUXILIAKY VERBS. 
Auxiliary Verbs are those which help to form the dif- 
ferent parts of other verbs. 

They are do, be, have, shall, and will. 

Remarks. — 1. Do, be, and have are also principal verbs. 

2. Do is used for emphasis, also in negative and interrogative sentences with- 
out emphasis. Formerly it was sometimes used in simple affirmative sentences ; 
as, "The young lions do lack."— English Bible. "False witnesses did rise up." — 
Psalm xxxv, 11. 

It is sometimes used instead of a repetition of some verb which has preceded ; 
as, "He studies better than you do;" that is, than you study. The verb in the 
infinitive mood may be regarded as understood after do used in this way : as, " He 
studies better than you do study." 

3. The verb to be when used as an auxiliary connects the subject and the par- 
ticiple expressing the action or state. 

4. The use of have as an auxiliary probably originated in its being used to 
express the possession of something represented as the object of an action denoted 
by the participle; as, "I have money concealed" (by myself) ; "I have coii' 
money," that is. money which is concealed. By degrees the idea of possession 
has been dropped ; and the participle has changed its mode of signification, so 

What are auxiliary verbs? What verbs are auxiliary verbs? 



VEEBS. 105 

that, instead of being passive, it is now active in sense, and instead of belonging 
to the noun, like an adjective, it now governs the noun in the objective case when 
it is transitive. It has become so entirely changed that intransitive verbs have this 
participle, though they can not have & passive participle. 

5. Shall is from the Anglo-Saxon scealan, and the original meaning is to owe. 
Thus, "Agyf thaet thu me scealt," Pay what thou owest me [shalt me] ; " Se him 
sceolde tyn thusend punda," Who owed [should] him ten thousand pounds. 
Chaucer uses the word in this sense; as, "By the faith I shall to God;" that 
is, owe. 

The original meaning may still be traced in the present use of this word; as, 
" Thou shalt not kill," Thou owest, art under obligation, not to kill ; "In the day 
that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die," owest, art destined, to die. So in 
the past tense, "Judas Iscariot which should betray him," was destined to betray 
him. Should is not used in this sense by modern writers. 

This signification of shall renders it appropriate in prophecies in which the 
object is to represent the event, not merely as future, but as destined, foreor- 
dained. Thus, " Every valley shall be exalted, and every hill shall be made low ; 
and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough places plain. And the 
glory of the Lord shaU be revealed ; for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it." 

This word is used to express obligation or necessity imposed upon one by the 
determination of another; as, " You shall write." Here the person addressed is rep- 
resented as placed by the determination of the speaker under the necessity of 
performing the act. 

Will expresses will, inclination, determination; as, "He will write in spite of 
opposition;" that is, is determined. 

6. What one owes, is obliged, is destined to do must be future ; what one wills 
to do must also be future. In certain cases the idea of futurity has prevailed over 
the original signification of the words, and shall and will denote events simply as 
future. 

7. The mode of expressing simple futurity in English implies, according to 
the original meaning of the words, that the speaker is impelled by obligation or 
destiny, while others are influenced by their own will ; and if any other than the 
speaker is represented as foretelling, he also is regarded as impelled by obligation 
or destiny. I sMZ be elected. 

You will be elected. 
He will be elected. 

Here the speaker employs shall in expressing what is to happen to himself and 
vrill in expressing what is to happen to others. 

rl shall be elected. 
You predict that • • • i You shall be elected. 
(.He will be elected. 

Here the person addressed is represented as foretelling, and shall is employed 
in expressing what is to happen to him as well as what is to happen to the speaker, 
while will is used in expressing what is to happen to another. 

Shall I be elected ? 
Shall you be elected ? 
Will he be elected? 

Here we inquire concerning the belief or expectation of the person addressed, 
" Shall I be elected ?" being equivalent to " Do you predict that I shall be elected ?" 
Accordingly shall and will are employed as in the preceding forms. 



106 ETYMOLOGY. 



He predicts that . . 



I shall be elected. 
You will be elected. 
He shall be elected. 
John will be elected. 



Here the person spoken of is represented as foretelling, and shall is employed in 
expressing what is to happen to him as well as what is to happen to the speaker, 
while will is employed in expressing what is to happen to others. 

8. In promises, resolutions, or threats the original meaning of shall and will is 
more apparent. Will is applied to the actions or states of the person who is repre- 
sented as promising, threatening, etc., and shall to those of others. 

I will write. 
You will write. 
He will write. 
Here the subject of the verb in each case represents the person who resolves, 
and will is employed in all the persons. 
I will write. 
You shall write. 
He shall write. 
Here the person speaking expresses resolution about the actions of others as 
well as his own, applying will to his own and shall to those of others. 
rYou will write. 
You are resolved that < I shall write. 

CHe shall write. 
Here the person addressed is the one who resolves ; accordingly will is used in 
the second person, and shall in the others. 
Will you write? 
Shall I write? 
Shall he write ? 
Here we inquire concerning the resolution of the person addressed, "Shall I 
write?" being equivalent to "Are you resolved that I shall write?" Accordingly 
will and shall are employed as in the preceding forms.* 
f He will write. 
He is resolved that . . < I shall write. 

Cyou shall write. 
Here the person spoken of is the one who resolves ; accordingly will is used 
in the third person, and sliall in the others. 

9. Since the form "Shall I be elected?" denotes either " Do you resolve that I 
shall be elected ?" or " Do you predict that I shall be elected ?" we must learn from 
other circumstances which is meant in any particular instance. 

10. To ask a question with will in the first person singular involves an absurdity; 
for such a question would represent a person as inquiring what his own will is. 

• Dr. Webster says, "Shall you gof asks for information of another's intention." 
This would make shall usurp the office of will. But it is easy to sec that Will you 
go? is the form that asks for information of another's intention. The answer to 
Will you gof is I -trill : an answer that would be impertinent if the inquiry wore 
not concerning the intention. "Oak. I will have my own way, I am determined. 
Major 0. Why, that \s well said. But will you do it? Oak. I will." — Oeo. Caiman. 
"Panthino. Wilt thou go? Launce. Well, 1 will go."— Shakespeare. "Thou canst 
not hear it named, and wilt thou do it?"— Coleridge. " How long wilt thou sleep, 
O sluggard? When wilt thou arise out of thy sleep ?"— English Bible. 



VERBS. 107 

Thus, " Will I go?" is equivalent to "Is it my will to go?" fix the Scotch song 
the mariner's wife, who has heard of the safe arrival of her husband, exclaims in 
the rapture of joy : „ And w . m 1 see his face again ? 

And will I hear him speak?" 
By using will instead of shall she asks if it is her will or intention to see him. 

11. But will may be employed interrogatively in the first person plural; as, 
"Will we quietly grant to European despotism what it most covets?" "We will 
do our best to repay him, will we not ?"— Bulwer. In such cases the speaker does 
not inquire what his own will is, but what is the will of those whom he associates 
with himself. 

12. Will maybe employed in the first person singular when the speaker merely 
changes the person in repeating a question which has been addressed to him ; as, 
" Will you accept the proposition ?" " Will I accept the proposition ? No, sir." 

13. A strong determination on the part of the speaker may be expressed in the 
form of a question with a negative ; as, " Will I not punish him?" 

14. Shall is sometimes found employed in the first person to express resolutions 
or promises, especially among the earlier writers; as, "I shall obey, my lord." — 
Shakespeare. "Proceed, I shall be silent."— Coleridge. This form may have been 
originally intended to denote that the performance of the promise would result 
from obligation or destiny rather than from will, " I shall obey " being equivalent 
to " I am bound to obey." Compare " Proceed, I shall be silent " with " Speak, I 
am bound to hear." — Shakespeare. 

"Kttely. Forget it not, nor be out of the way. 

Cash. I will not, sir. 

Kitely. I pray you have a care on't ; 
Or whether he come or no, if any other, 
Stranger or else, fail not to send me word. 

Cash. I shall not, sir." — Ben Jonson. 

15. Shall is used in all the persons to denote simple futurity in certain cases in 
which the future event is assumed rather than directly asserted ; namely, after 
such words as except, if, though, although, whether, unless; in relative propositions 
which qualify the antecedents, and in propositions containing adverbs in which 
the idea of the relative is involved ; as, "If ye shall see the Son of man ;" "Except 
your righteousness shall exceed the righteousness of the Scribes and Pharisees;" 
" Unless the work shall be completed ;" " Every person who shall be present will 
hear ;" " Whoever shall kill shall be in danger of the judgment ;" " Beware of the 
day when the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array;" "Till time shall be no 
more ;" " We will pursue this course whenever it shall be practicable ;" "Before the 
child shall know." 

The relative proposition who shall be present qualifies the antecedent person, 
describing what class of persons will hear ; the relative proposition whoever shall 
kill qualifies the antecedent (person) understood; when is equivalent to in which ; 
till is equivalent to the time at which ; whenever, to at all times at which. 

In modern usage shall is generally omitted ; as, " Unless the work be completed.' " 

16. Will, as well as shall, is used in commands; as, "You will proceed to Paris 
by the most direct route, and there you will await further orders." Sliall expresses 
the command authoritatively ; as, " Thou shall not steal." Will expresses it in a 
milder manner as merely a future event. 

17. Those who have not been acetistomed to do so from childhood, which is 
the case with the natives of Scotland, Ireland, and some parts of the United 
States, find it difficult to make the proper distinction between shall and will. As 
their error consists in using will for shall, not in using shall for will, they will find 
the difficulty removed by attending to the following 



108 



ETYMOLOGY. 



CAUTIONS in REGAKD to the USE of SHALL and WILL. 
I. First Person. 

If you wish to express merely what will take place, without an idea 
of will or determination, do not use will. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

" I will be compelled to leave my home." Here the speaker wishes 
to express merely what will take place, and can not mean that he is 
determined to be compelled, which would be absurd ; the use of will is 
therefore improper. 

"I hope that I will see him." Here is intended to be expressed 
merely a future event, which the speaker hopes will take place, the 
nature of the case excluding the idea of will or determination. It is 
therefore improper to use will. 

" Perhaps I will find some money." The word 2^rhaps shows that 
the speaker can not mean that he is determined to find some money; 
and consequently the use of will is improper. 

" I will feel obliged if you will send me the book." As the speaker 
does not wish to express a determination to feel obliged, but merely the 
result that will follow the sending of the book, he should not use will. 

" We will be pleased to see you." The speaker does not wish to say 
that he and those associated with him are determined to be pleased, 
which would not be complimentary, but that the pleasure will follow 
as a natural consequence of seeing the person to whom he speaks ; he 
should therefore not use will. 

II. Second and Third Persons. 

If the person is to be represented as expressing merely what will 
happen to himself, without any idea of will or determination, do not 
use will. 

Remark.— This caution applies to dependent propositions only; for it is in 
such propositions only that any one but the speaker can be represented as express- 
ing what will happen to himself. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 
"You say that you will be compelled to leave your home." "He 
hopes that he will see him." "You think that perhaps you will find 
some money." "He says that he will feel obliged, if you will send 
him the book." "They say that they will be pleased to see you." 



"When should you avoid using will in the 

first person? 
Why is it incorrect to say, "I will be 

compelled to leave my home"? 



Why is it incorrect to say, "I hope that 
I will find some money"? 



VERBS. 109 

In these examples you, he, and they take the place of J and we in the 
examples under Caution I, the persons being represented as foretelling 
what will happen to themselves, without any idea of will or determina- 
tion ; the use of will is therefore improper. 

III. Interrogations. 

If the inquiry is merely about what will happen to the person 
spoken to, and not about his will or determination, do not use will. 

Remarks.— 1. That one of these two words which would he proper in the 
answer is the word to he employed in the question; as, "Shall you be compelled 
to leave your home ?" "I shall be compelled to leave ray home." 

2. When a proposition is dependent on another which takes the interrogative 
form the use of shall and will in the dependent proposition is regulated by the 
principle involved in Caution II ; as, " Do you say that you shall be compelled to 
leave your home?" 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

"Will you be happy to see me?" "Will you be obliged to desist 
from the undertaking?" " Will you not lose your suit by doing so?" 

In these examples the inquiry is about what will happen to the per- 
son addressed, not about his will or determination ; the use of will is 
therefore improper. 

EXERCISES. 
1. Explain why shall is used correctly in the following examples : 

I suppose we shall see her in the spring. [Correct, because it is 
merely a future event that is denoted, not a determination or promise.] 
I shall be very happy to see her. Perhaps I shall be able to find him. 
I shall be murdered by my barbarous subjects. I shall perish ere they 
come to save me. I shall be secure with her. O ! I shall die ; I shall 
expire in a fit of laughing. I shall have an altercation with this honest 
blockhead. 

I hope we shall see Sir Peter. I fear we shall not go hence as we 
came. I shall be very much obliged to you, if you will give me your 
opinion on these points. I shall be glad to be your servant. If we 
examine this, we shall perceive its utility. What sufferings shall I 
have to endure! It is very improbable that I shall sell my house 
before Christmas. 

2. Explain why will is used incorrectly in the following examples: 
I dare say I will become fat, torpid, and motionless. [Incorrect, 
because the speaker can not intend to express a determination to become 



When should you avoid using will in the 

second person ? 
To what kind of propositions docs this 

caution apply? 



What is the caution about interroga- 
tions ? 

What is said about the correspondence 
of the question and the answer? 



110 ETYMOLOGY. 

fat, torpid, and motionless.] I will be driven to that at last. I take it 
for granted we will have to endure them. I fancy that I will read my 
sermon all the better for such a listener. The time is so short that I 
will have no opportunity of seeing him. I will like him less than I 
wish. I will be ruined if you do not assist me. 

We will be punished for this. I hope I will be able to see him in 
the morning. When will we see him again? Now I will be teazed by 
all his tribe. I will be sorry to leave you, my kind friend. Perhaps I 
will be able to discover some useful coadjutor. This day, if he keeps 
his promise, we will have our answer. I will laugh myself to death at 
this puppy-headed monster. 

3. In which of the following sentences is will correctly employed : 
Help! help! I will be murdered! [The speaker does not intend to 
express a determination to be murdered; therefore will is incorrectly 
used.] How will I be revenged on him? I suppose I will find him 
at the inn. I will drown, nobody shall help me. I will do what you 
request me to do. [ Correct, because the speaker intends to express a 
promise.] I will stand, and so shall Trinculo. [ Determination about 
the act of the speaker and about that of the person spoken of.] I shall 
be extremely happy to see him and will leave a note for him at the 
tavern. [The first proposition expresses a future event, the second a 
promise.] If you are going into the field, I will go with you. We 
will often find ourselves obliged to dissent from the opinions of the 
biographer. 

If you come this way, we will be happy to see you. I will be at the 
least three weeks in making my tour. We will be able to form some 
idea of the large field opened for Christian philanthropy I will be 
much obliged to you, if you direct me where I shall find the best infor- 
mation. I will mount the boys on the ponies, and they shall scour the 
country forthwith, and you shall be supplied with yeast and i 
[Determination or promise.] Ha! I will have a fine pot now. [Future 
event.] If it is my lot to crawl, I will crawl contentedly. When the 
political storms shall pass away, we will find the flag of our country 
floating proudly on the breeze. 

We will gain all we wish. He received acknowledgments, in con- 
sequence of which I will be this day set at liberty. We have every 
reason to believe that we will be called upon to record some remarkably 
fast time. Let this work go on, and we will soon be once more a united 
and happy people. I want office : if you vote for me, I will be elected; 
if you do not vote for me, I will not be elected. 



VERBS. Ill 

4. Insert the proper word in each of the following blanks : 
If we examine this, we ... . perceive its utility. [Does not mean to 
express a determination to perceive.] I . . . . endeavor to send you the 
book to-morrow. [Promise.] .... we hear a good speech if we go? The 
cause is in my will, I . . . . not come. I . . . . seek out Falstaff. .... 
you go with us to behold it? We .... be delighted to receive a visit 
from you. [Future event, not determination.] We .... be conquered 
by our passions. I believe I . . . . receive a letter to-day. I .... be 
free! unbar the doorl Poor father! you will suffer more than I . . . . 
[Future event.] I . . . . act upon my first impulse and go straight to 
Kalph Nickleby. I .... be miserable, if you leave me. I .... not 
lend thee a penny. 

5. Explain the difference in meaning made by changing shall to will: 

As for being a bishop, that I shall never be. As for being a bishop, 
that I will never be. I shall be in London in March. I will be in 
London in March. I shall never see her again. I will never see her 
again. I shall be elected. I will be elected. [I am determined to use 
the means that will secure my election.] We shall be satisfied. We 
will be satisfied. 

I shall never laugh again. I will never laugh again. Merrily, 
merrily shall I live now. Merrily, merrily will I live now. I assure 
you I shall hear no such impertinence. I assure you I will hear no 
such impertinence. I shall sell my house before Christmas. I will sell 
my house before Christmas. We shall be no more troubled with him. 
We will be no more troubled with him. 

6. Why is shall used in the following sentences? (See Caution II.) 

You suppose that you shall see her in the spring. [The person that 
supposes is the person that is to see.] You say that you shall be bappy 
to see her. You predict that you shall find some money. He fears that 
he shall perish before they come to save him. He believes that he shall 
be murdered by his barbarous subjects. You hope you shall see Sir 
Peter. They fear they shall not go hence as they came. They say they 
shall be very much obliged to you, if you will give your opinion on 
these points. 

He says he shall be glad to be your servant. Do you consider it 
probable that you shall sell your house before Christmas? Do you 
expect that you shall become fat? She says that she shall be driven 
to that at last. Do you take it for granted that you shall have to 
endure them ? You think you shall read your sermon better for such 
a listener. 



112 ETYMOLOGY. 

You assert that the time is so short that you shall have no oppor- 
tunity of seeing him. He thinks he shall like him less than he wishes. 
He predicts that he shall be ruined, if you do not assist him. Do they 
think that they shall not be punished for this ? He believes that he 
shall have an answer to-day. Do you know how you shall be revenged 
on him? 

(See Caution III.) Shall you be murdered by your barbarous sub- 
jects? Shall you find him at the inn? Shall you be three weeks in 
making your tour? Shall you gain all you wish? Shall you find the 
flag of your country still floating? Shall you be set at liberty to-day? 
Shall you hear a good speech, if you go? Shall you be elected? Shall 
you be ruined unless he assists you? Shall you be surprised to see 
him? Shalt thou be lord of the whole world? Shall you do any good 
by going there? Shall you be unhappy if I do not come? 

SHOULD and WOULD. 

1. Between should, the past form of shall, and would, the past form of will, there 
is in general the same distinction that exists between shall and will; should, accord- 
ing to the original signification, expressing events resulting from necessity, and 
would expressing events depending on will; as, "The nation would [was deter- 
mined] go to war;" "Thou art the Christ which should, [was destined] to come 
into the world." Should, however, is not now used in this absolute sense. 

2. As the present forms shall and will are employed to express events as future 
to present time, so the past forms should and would are employed to express events 
as future to past time; as, " We wondered what the house would be like, and when 
we should get there, and whether we should see Mr. Jarndyce, and what he would 
say to us, and what we should say to him." 

This passage expresses events future to the past time to which wondered refers. 
If we change wondered to wonder, we see that shall takes the place of should, and 
will that of would; as, "We wonder what the house will be like, and when we 
shall get there," etc. 

Accordingly, in such forms should is used in expressing what was to happen to 
the speaker and to the person represented as foretelling or supposing, and would in 
expressing what was to happen to others. 

3. In promises, resolutions, or threats would is applied to the actions or states 
of the person represented as promising, etc., and should to those of others. 



ILLUSTRATIONS, 
r I should be elected. 
I predicted that . . . -| You would be elected. 
. He would be elected, 
r I should be elected. 
You predicted that. . \ You should be elected. 
I He would be elected. 
I shovld be elected. 
You would be elected. 
Se should be elected. 
John would be elected. 



•••'•{I 

(I 81 
Yo 
He 



He predicted that . . 



VEEBS. 113 



r I would write. 
I resolved that . . . j You should write. 
I He should write. 

il should write. 
Yowwould write. 
He should write. 



I should write. 
He resolved that . . J *ou should write. 
He would write. 
John should write. 

4. Where the past form of a verb is used to express a condition or supposition 
shoidd or would may be employed in expressing the conclusion; as, "If I had a 
pen, I would write ;" " If I had a pen, I shoidd be compelled to write ;" " If he had 
a pen, he would write ;" f ' If he had a pen, he should write ;" " He says that if he 
had a pen, he would write ;" "He says that if he had a pen, he shoidd be compelled 
to write;" "If I saw him acting justly, I should admire him;" "HI saw him 
acting justly, I would applaud him." 

Here the same distinction prevails between should and would as in the pre- 
ceding case. "If I saw him acting justly, I would applaud him," expresses a 
voluntary action; "If I saw him acting justly, I should admire him," expresses 
something that does not depend on will. 

5. The condition is not always formally expressed ; as, "You would secure his 
favor by acting so " [if you acted so] ; "I should be happy to find [if I should find] 
you restored to health;" "Without help [if no one had helped me], I should 
have failed." 

6. A conclusion often stands without any condition expressed, the condition 
being implied; as, "I would not accept such an offer," [if it were made]; "I 
should be glad to go with you," [if I could]. 

Should and would, like the past forms of other verbs, may be used to express 
the condition or supposition ; as, "HI should report this, they would not believe 
me;" "If he would study, he would learn." In this case should is used in all the 
persons when the assumed event does not depend on will ; as, " If I should be 
compelled;" "If you should be compelled;" "If he should be compelled." So 
after though, unless, whether, etc. 

7. After the introductory that should is often used in an indefinite sense in all 
the persons, "I am surprised that he should act so " [at his acting so]. " I am sur- 
prised that he would act so ' ' implies a determination. 

8. The use of shoidd and would in conditions and conclusions relating to 
present time would easily lead to their being employed to express present time 
absolutely ; which is the case where should is used in the sense of ought, and would 
in the sense of wish, as they are used in all the persons; as, "You should obey 
your parents;" " Whatever ye would that men should do to you." 

9. These past forms thus used with a present sense express meanings which 
are no longer expressed by the present forms. Thus, "John should write " expresses 
a duty of John ; while "John shall write " declares the speaker's resolution in regard 
to John. "Iago. Would you be satisfied? Othello. Would? Nay, I will!" 

10. This usage furnishes an explanation of some common forms of speech, 
such as, "I should say that he is an honest man;" "I should doubt his candor;" 
" He is not, we should suppose, capable of performing the labor." These are soft- 
ened assertions, not so positive or abrupt as if should were not used. Instead of 
directly asserting a thing, these forms literally mean that circumstances are such 
as necessarily to lead the speaker to do what is expressed by the verb with which 

10 



114 ETYMOLOGY. 

should is connected. " I should doubt his candor "=" I am compelled by circum- 
stances to doubt his candor, whatever may be my inclination." 

11. When we wish to refer to past time a change is made in the infinitives with 
Which should and would are connected; as, "John should have written yesterday." 

12. "Should seem, Would seem. These phrases differ only in strength. We use 
' should seem' when the case is so strong as to render the inference almost a neces- 
sary one ; we use ' would seem ' to express a prevailing semblance or probability, with 
perhaps a slight implication that the case may be otherwise. Mr. Pickering sup- 
posed ' would seem ' to be a peculiarity of America ; it is used, however, by English 
writers in the sense given above." — Webster's Dictionary. 

The difference between these two phrases is such as we should infer from the 
difference between should and would. Desire implies inclination or tendency 
toward the thing desired ; " It would seem " therefore denotes a tendency to .seem ; 
while " It should seem" denotes the same thing as necessary. "The battle would 
seem to have been a bloody one." " The battle should seem to have been a bloody 
one." The former expression implies that all the circumstances with which 
we are acquainted tend to make the battle seem to have been a bloody one ; while 
the latter implies that the circumstances necessarily make the battle seem to have 
been of that character. 

13. As will is used to denote a custom existing in present time, so would is used 
to denote a custom existing in past time; as, "He would spend whole hours in 
this employment " : „ Thege things to hear 

Would Desdemona seriously incline; 
But still the house affairs would draw her thence; 
Which ever as she could with haste despatch, 
She'd come again."— Shakespeare. 

14. As would is often improperly used for should, attention is directed to the 
following 

CAUTIONS in REGARD to the USE of SHOULD and WOULD. 
I. First Person. 
If there is no will or determination to be expressed, do not use 
would; as, "I should be glad to see you," not would. 

II. Second and Third Persons. 

If the person represented as saying, supposing, etc., is not to express 
will or determination, do not use would; as, "You said that you should 
be happy to see her," not would. 

III. Interrogations. 
If the inquiry is not about the will or determinations of the person 
addressed, do not use would; as, "Should you be surprised to see her?" 

not would. 

What is the caution about the use of I Why is it Incorrect to say, " I would be 
would in the fir>-t person? ! riad to sec you " ? 

What is the caution about the use <>f Why is it incorrect to say. " You said that 
•would In the second and th^rd, per- j you would be happy to see her " 7 
sons? Why is it incorrect to say. "Would you 

In interrogations? | be surprised to see her'" ? 



VERBS. 115 

EXERCISES. 

1. Explain why should is correctly used in the following examples : 

I supposed I should see her in the spring. [Correct, because no will 
or determination is intended to be expressed.] I feared I should be 
murdered by my barbarous subjects. I thought I should expire in a 
fit of laughing. I hoped we should see Sir Peter. I never thought I 
should be compelled to build. It was very improbable that I should 
sell my house before Christmas. She imagined she should enjoy more 
agreeable minutes with the captain. 

He told her he should be glad to see her. He was confident that he 
should succeed. You did not think that you should see him so soon. 
He bids me assure you he should be sorry not to have more schemes of 
kindness for his friends than of ambition for himself. He hinted that 
he should like to be buried in a certain spot. The doer of ill should be 
promptly punished. 

If we examined this, we should perceive its utility. If we had a 
horse, we should find him to be troublesome in this thicket. If I had 
seen him sooner, I should have been able to escape him. If I had 
recited so badly, I should be ashamed. If I had given the whole, I 
should have had no right to the sixpence. If I had written sooner, I 
should have secured the place. 

If I had started sooner, I should now be at home. If I had begun 
it yesterday, I should have finished it to-day. I should be happy to 
know that he is well. "With your help I should have succeeded. If I 
should say so, I should be guilty of falsehood. If he should do such 
a thing, I should be very much surprised. Unless he should agree to 
this, I should be very unwilling to accept his proposition. 

I should be very much displeased, if you should do so. I should 
just like to know of what use thistles are in the world. I should like 
to be Sir Richard. What sufferings should I have to endure ! I need 
not say how very happy we should be to see you here. I should doubt 
his honesty. I should suppose him to be a very poor man. I should 
say that such a man is unfit for the office. I should regret his election. 
"We should always do right. 

2. Explain why would is incorrectly used in the following examples: 
I took it for granted we would have to endure them. [Incorrect, 
because no will or determination is intended to be expressed.] I knew 
that I would be driven to that at last. I perceived that I would read 
my sermon all the better for such a listener. The time was so short 
that I knew I would have no opportunity of seeing him. 



110 ETYMOLOGY. 

He assured me I would find the evening most favorable. He repre- 
sented that he was out of money, and would like to obtain a free pass. 
He thought that he would like to marry his cousin Alice. I would be 
ruined, if you did not assist me. If all went well with me, I would be 
one of the happiest of mortals. I would be pleased to observe this 
wonderful operation of occult sympathies. 

"Were yon here, I would have an opportunity of pouring out my 
whole soul to you. "We would not believe the second one to be true, 
if it came from any other place than the National Capital. If we were 
logical, we would be satisfied. What a wretch would I be, were I to 
deprive myself of such a blessing ! The rats were rather more muti- 
nous than I would have expected from the state of Caleb's larder. 

3. In which of the following sentences is would correctly employed? 

I supposed I would find her at the inn. [ Incorrect, because the 
speaker does not intend to express will or determination.] I thought 
we would be punished for this. I promised that I would go. [Correct, 
because a promise implies will.] I would be surprised to see him here. 
[Incorrect, because surprise is not caused by the will.] I would go with 
him, if he would permit me. How would I be revenged on him? He 
said that he would drown, and nobody should help him. 

"We would teach him, if he were willing to study. I would be very 
much obliged to you, if you would furnish the information. He prom- 
ised that if I would try, he w r ould assist me. We had every reason 
to believe that we would be called upon to record some remarkably 
fast time. 

4. Insert the proper word in each of the following blanks: 

If we examined this, we ... . perceive its utility. [Does not express 
a determination to perceive its utility.] I .... do so, if I were in your 
place. [Expresses will.] .... we hear a good speech, if we .... go? 
[No will or determination.] .... you go with us, if you could? I . . . . 

go, if I could you be disappointed if you could not see him? 

I believed I . . . . receive a letter to-day. Poor father! I know that 
you would suffer more than I .... I .... be rendered miserable by 
your pursuing that course. I . . . . not lend thee a penny, though thou 
wert starving. I . . . . not be a man, if I did not feel this. 

5. Explain the difference in meaning made by changing should to would: 

He hoped that I should" see him. He hoped that I would Bee him. 

I should do what he wishes. I would do what he wishes. If we should 

imitate him, it would be better for us. If we would imitate him. it 

would be better for us. If thou shouldst drown thyself, the loss will 



PAUSING EXERCISES. 117 

not be greatly felt. If thou wouldst drown thyself, a little water in a 
spoon will be as all the ocean. 

I told him that I should be in London in March. I told him that I 
would be in London in March. I said that I should see her again. I 
said that I would see her again. I declared that I should be elected. 
I declared that I would be elected. Did you think that I should go? 
Did you think that I would go ? I am surprised that he should go. I 
am surprised that he would go. 

6. Why is should used in the following sentences? (See Caution II.) 

You supposed that you should see her in the spring. You said that 
you should be happy to see her. You predicted that you should find 
some money. He believed that he should be murdered by his barbarous 
subjects. You hoped that you should see Sir Peter. They said that 
they should be very much obliged to you, if you would give your 
opinion. He said that he should be glad to be your servant. Did you 
consider it probable that you should sell your house before Christmas? 
On her death-bed she did say that she should hear the castle-bell strike 
twelve upon her wedding-day. 

(See Caution III.) Should you be murdered by your barbarous 
subjects, if we should not assist you? Should you find him at the inn 
by going now? Should you be three weeks in making your tour, if the 
weather should continue fine? Should you have been three weeks in 
making your tour, if the weather had continued fine? Should you 
have heard a good speech, if you had gone? Should you be surprised 
to see him? 

PAESING EXEECISES. 
"The horse runs." 

Runs is a verb — a word by which something is aflirmed ; irregular — 
the past tense and the auxiliary perfect participle are not formed by 
annexing ed to the imperfect infinitive; imperfect infinitive run, past 
tense ran, participle run; intransitive — it does not express an action 
exerted directly upon some person or thing; indicative mood — it is 
used to express direct assertion; present tense — it expresses what takes 
place in present time; third person, singular number, because the 
subject horse is. 

Rule. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"You have deceived me." 
Have deceived is a verb — a word by which something is affirmed; 
regular — the past tense and auxiliary perfect participle are formed by 



118 ETYMOLOGY. 

annexing ed to the imperfect infinitive; imperfect infinitive deceive, past 
tense deceived, participle deceived; transitive — it expresses an action 
exerted directly upon an object; active voice — the word denoting the 
actor is the subject; indicative mood — it is used to express direct 
assertion; present-perfect tense — it represents an action as perfect or 
completed in present time; second person plural, because the subject 
you is. 

Rule.— A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"J have been deceived by you." 

Have been deceived is a verb; regular; transitive — it expresses an 
action exerted directly upon an object; passive voice — the word denoting 
the object acted upon is the subject; indicative mood; present-perfect 
tense; first person singular, because the subject /is. 

Rule.— A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"Come." 

Come is a verb; irregular; come, came, come; intransitive; impera- 
tive mood — it is used to express a command;* second person plural, 
because the subject yow\ is. 

Rule.— A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"Disguise thyself." 

Disguise is a verb ; regular; disguise, disguised, disguised ; transitive; 
active voice; imperative mood; second persoi* singular, because the 
subject thou is. 

Rule.— A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

11 Thy will be done" 

Be done is a verb; irregular; do, did, done; transitive; passive 
voice; imperative mood; third person singular, because the subject 
will is. 

Rule.— A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

U I love to study geography." 

To study is a verb in the infinitive mood — it expresses the meaning 
of a verb in the form of a noun; regular; study, studied, studied; tran- 
sitive — it expresses action exerted directly upon an object; active voice — 
it expresses acting; imperfect tense — it denotes an action not completed; 
it is the object of the transitive verb love. 

Rule.— The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjunct, or a finite verb. 

-As there is but one tense in this mood, nothing need be said about tense, 
t Unless there is something in the context to show that thou is the subject, 
the subject of the second person is always the plural form you. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 119 

"Theodore wishes to be admired." 

To be admired is a verb in the infinitive mood — it expresses the 
meaning of a verb in the form of a noun ; regular ; admire, admired, 
admired; transitive; passive voice — it expresses being acted upon; 
imperfect tense — it denotes action not completed; it is the object of 
the transitive verb wishes. 

Rule.— The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjunct, or a finite verb. 

"You should rise." 

Should is a verb — a word by which something is affirmed ; defective 
— it is remarkable for wanting some of its parts; irregular; present 
shall, past should; transitive — it expresses action exerted directly upon 
an object; active voice — the word denoting the actor is the subject; 
indicative mood — it is used to express direct assertion ; past form, used 
to express obligation existing in present time; second person plural, 
because the subject you is. 

Rise is a verb in the infinitive mood, to being omitted after should — 
it expresses the meaning of the verb in the form of a noun, etc. ; it is 
the object of the transitive verb should. (See page 71.) 

Rule.— A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

The horse runs. William has written two letters. I have seen 
George. Andrew tore his book. I will visit you. He had destroyed 
it before* my return. I shall be glad of your success. A good man 
loves God. You have deceived me. I have been deceived by you. 

Caesar conquered Pompey. Pompey was conquered by Csesar. I 
shall be honored by my companions. My companions will honor me. 
Thomas cut the wood. The wood was cut by Thomas. Several persons 
had seen the bear. The bear had been seen by several persons. Every 
one will esteem you. You will be esteemed by every one. 

Come. Listen. Run. Read this book. Relieve the wretched. 
Labor diligently. Avoid bad company. Ask no questions. Help 
me. Shut the door. Disguise thyself. Be advised by your friends. 
Confess your sins. 

Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done. Heaven protect him! 
God forbid ! Hallowed be thy name. Go we to the king. Retire 
we to our chamber. Make we our march toward Birnam. Angels 
and ministers of grace defend us! 

Joseph is writing. Having accomplished his object, he returned to 
his country. The man escaped, leaving his companion at the mercj* of 
.the bear. Hated by some, despised by others, he is without a friend 

*The words in italics are prepositions. 



120 ETYMOLOGY. 

I love to study geography. Theodore wishes to be admired. You 
must write. I can write. The nation would go to war. He could 
use a pen. You may read this book. He ought to rise. He ought 
to have risen. He should have risen. Could you read the letter? 

Joseph is writing. Having accomplished his object, he returned to 
his country. The man escaped, leaving his companion at the mercy of 
the bear. Hated by some, despised by others, he is without a friend. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is a word used in connection with a follow- 
ing noun to form an adjunct modifying some preceding word; 
as, "The hatred of vice;" "This book will be useful to John;" 
"He lives for glory;" "He acts consistently with his prin- 
ciples." 

Note. — A preposition can not properly be said to "show a relation between a 
noun and some other word; the relation is between things, not words. "He went 
to Paris." Here to shows the relation between the city and the going, not between 
the words Paris and went. 

The preposition of and the following noun vice form an adjunct 
modifying the preceding noun hatred; to John is an adjunct to the 
adjective useful; for glory is an adjunct to the verb lives; with his 
principles is an adjunct to the adverb consistently. 

Note.— "Adjunct (Gram.), an expression added, to extend, explain, or modify 
something. ' '— Worcester. 

Adjectives and possessives that modify the noun are regarded as 
belonging to the adjunct. "He lives in the greatest seclusion." Here 
in the greatest seclusion is an adjunct to lives. 

The word preposition is derived from the Latin propositus, placed 
before, and the preposition is so called from its position before the noun. 

The noun is called the object of the preposition ; the preceding word 
is called the antecedent term. 

The same word may have several adjuncts; as, "The stream runs 
with rapidity, by the house, into the river." 

{with rapidity, 
by the house, 
into the river. 
The noun in an adjunct maybe modified by another adjunct; as, 
" This is inconsistent with the character of a man of honor." Here 



What is a preposition? 
Explain the examples. 
What is an adjunct? 
What is the noun called? 



From what is the word ]>rrposition 

derived? 
Give an example in which the 

word has more than one adjunct 



PEEPOSITIONS. 



121 



the adjective inconsistent is modified by the adjunct with the character, 
the noun character is modified by the adjunct of a man, and man is 
modified by the adjunct of honor. 

This is inconsistent 

with the character 

of a man 

of honor. 

The adjunct may be placed out of the natural order to which pre- 
ceding in the definition refers; as, "To John the book will be useful." 
This is always the case when the object of the preposition is a relative 
or an interrogative pronoun, because these pronouns are placed as near 
as possible to the beginning of their propositions ; as, " This is the man 
to whom he spoke." Here to whom is an adjunct to spoke. 

The preposition may be separated from the object, especially in 
colloquial style; as, "This is the man whom he spoke to;" "This is the 
man that he spoke to." The relative that never has the preposition 
before it. 

The same preposition may have more than one object; as, "He 
went to London and Paris." Here to has two objects, the action 
expressed by the verb went being directed to two places. To London 
and Paris may be regarded as one adjunct modifying went. 

The meaning of betwixt and between is such as to require two 
objects when the nouns are in the singular number; as, "He sits 
between James and Thomas." The two objects may be denoted by 
one plural term; as, "He sits between them." 

There may be more than one antecedent term ; as, " Be just and 
kind to all men." Here the adjunct to all men modifies both just 
and kind. 

The adverbs forth and out are sometimes made to change places 
with the preposition from, so that from forth and from out are used 
instead of forth from and out from; as, "Eisest from forth thy silent 
sea of pines." — Coleridge. " Such as press the life from out young 
hearts." — Byron. 

Any thing performing the ofiice of a noun may be the object of a 
preposition : 

1. Gerund; as, "He is engaged in cutting wood." 

2. Infinitive mood; as, "He is about to go." 



Give an example in which the noun in 
an adjunct is modified by another ad- 
junct. 

Give an example in which the adjunct 
is placed out of the natural order. 

May the same preposition have more 
than one object? 



11 



Give an example in which there are 

more than one antecedent term. 
What adverbs are sometimes made to 

change places with the preposition 

from? 
Give an example in which a gerund is 

used after a preposition. An infinitive. 



122 



ETYMOLOGY. 



3. Proposition; as, "The result depends on who is to be the judge;" 
" This afforded time for the others to come up." 

4. Adverb used in the sense of a noun; as, "Wait till then" (that 
time); "I will try for once" (one time); "We shall live for i 

(all time). 

5. Adjunct used as a noun ; as, " He ran from under the iree." Here 
from and under do not form a compound preposition, as some say, but 
under the tree denotes the place, like a noun, and is the object of from. 
From where did he run ? This construction is analogous to that of the 
preposition and adverb, the adjunct being equivalent to an adverb. 
"The average income of these small land -holders is estimated at 
between sixty and seventy pounds." — Macaulay. Similar to this con- 
struction is that contained in such sentences as, "They [Judgment 
and Reason] have been jurymen since before Noah was a sailor" the 
proposition Noah was a sailor taking the place of a noun after the 
preposition before, and the adjunct thus formed being the object of the 
preposition since. 

List of Prepositions. 

About, above, across, adown, after, against, along, amid, amidst, 
among, amongst, around, at, athwart; before, behind, below, beneath, 
beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, by; down ; ere; for, from; in, 
into; mid; of, off, on, over; past; round; since; through, throughout, 
till, to, toward, towards ; under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon ; with, 
within, without. 

Remarks. — 1. A, formed from on, was once used separately as a preposition; 
as, "The world runs a wheels." — Ben Jonson. It is now joined to the noun ; as, 
ashore (on shore), aboard (on board). It is, however, separated from the gerund, or 
participial noun ; as, "He met her once a maying."— Milton. In modern at 
hyphen is often (unnecessarily) placed between the preposition and the gerund ; 
as, " Life went a-maying." — Coleridge. 

2. Aboard (on board) is generally regarded as a preposition; as, "He went 
aboard the ship." But on board is used in exactly the same manner ; as, " He went 
onboard the ship."— Johnson. In both cases there is an ellipsis of the imposition 
of, which is often expressed with aboard as well as with on board; as, " He went 
aboard (on the deck) of the vessel." If aboard is regarded as a preposition, many 
similar words must be placed in the same class ; as, astride, a'- <:>sidc, 

outside; for the preposition of is sometimes omitted after them. The same prin- 
ciple would make prepositions of left hand and either end in the following pan 
"The mound 'left hand the town."— Scott. "Fastened ourselves at cither end the 
mast."— Shakespeare. The full construction is, On the left hand of the town; At 
either end of the mast. 

Some absurdly place the whole expression aboard of, as well as becautr of and 
instead of, in the list of prepositions. If aboard of is a preposition, on hoard of is 



Give an example in which a gerund is 
used after a proposition. 
After an adverb. 
After an adjunct. 



Give a list of the prepositions beginning 
with a. With h. With d. With 
/. With i. With m. With o. With p. 
\Vithr. With*-. With/. With* With m. 



PREPOSITIONS. 123 

also a preposition ; if instead of is a, preposition, we must regard in place of and in 
lieu of as prepositions. 

It is easy to see that instead consists in reality of two words, which have been 
capriciously joined together ; while in such expressions as in place of the noun 
and the preposition have been kept separate. Such words as aboard, instead, be- 
cause (as used above, that is, by cause), may be called disguised adjuncts, the nouns 
included in them being followed by the preposition of expressed or understood. 
Compare the French a bord de, au lieu de. 

3. The following also are generally included in the list of prepositions: Accord- 
ing to, bating, concerning, during, except, excepting, notwithstanding, pending, regarding, 
respecting, save, saving, touching. 

4. The form of most of these words shows them to be participles. According, 
bating, excepting, saving, withstanding, during, pending, concerning, regarding, respect- 
ing, and touching are participles belonging to nouns expressed or understood. 
Except is usually a participle ; when followed by an objective it is a verb in the 
imperative mood. Save is a form of the adjective safe, or. an apocopated participle 
for saved, the noun with which it is connected being in the nominative case abso- 
lute ; when followed by an objective it is a verb in the imperative mood. But is 
a contraction of be out; be is a verb in the imperative mood, modified by the adverb 
out; the noun that follows being in the nominative case, subject of be. 

ACCORDING TO. 

5. " The sentinel, according (conforming) to command, stood before the gate." 
According is a participle belonging to sentinel. "According (conforming) to his 
instructions, he proceeded on his journey." According is a participle belonging 
to lie. " This course is not according (conforming, agreeable) to law." According 
is a participle belonging to course. 

" Hast thou, according (conforming) to thy oath and bond, 
Brought hither Henry Hereford?" 
" Our zeal should be according to knowledge." 

Sometimes according may be regarded as belonging to a noun understood ; as, 
"Welcome him [in a manner] according to his worth;" "I will use them [in a 
manner] according to their desert ;■" "I will praise the Lord [in a manner] according 
to his righteousness ;" " Have mercy upon me [in a degree] according to thy loving- 
kindness ;" " We will our celebration keep [in a manner] according to my birth;" 
" I love your majesty [in a degree] according to my bond." 

In any case according to should never be regarded as one word. If according 
in the last examples is not a participle belonging to a noun understood, it is an 
adverb, and not part of a preposition. Thus according in the last example may be 
regarded as an adverb modifying love. If according to is to be considered a prepo- 
sition, contrary to must also be placed in the list ; for the latter expression is em- 
ployed in precisely the same way as the former ; as, "I will use them contrary to 
their desert;" "Though he pretends to act according to his instructions, he is 
acting directly contrary to them." 

CONCERNING. 

6. " He expounded the things which concerned himself." " He expounded the 
things concerning (regarding) himself." Concerning is a participle belonging to 
things. "Something that nearly concerns yourselves" "Something nearly con- 
cerning yourselves." "The true judgment concerning (relating to) the power." 
"A discourse concerning (relating to) this point." "I am free from all doubt con- 
cerning it." "Is that nothing? Nothing concerning me." "A work concerning 
allegiance." "A man's judgment concerning actions." "Mistakes concerning the 
plan and conduct of the poem." " That the purpose might not be changed con- 



124 ETYMOLOGY. 

cerning (which concerned) Daniel." " What is the opinion of Pythagoras concerning 
wild fowl?" "Some things of weight concerning us and France." "No jealous 
toy concerning you." "The speech among the Londoners concerning the French 
journey." In each of these examples concerning is a participle belonging to the 
noun in italics. 

In such expressions as the following concerning may seem to be a preposition : 
"The Lord hath spoken good concerning Israel;" "They speak concerning 
virtue;" " He told them concerning the swine;" "Thou dost not inquire wisely 
concerning this." 

Even in such cases concerning is a participle. Webster says: "This word has 
been considered as a preposition, but most improperly; concerning, when bo called, 
refers to a verb, sentence, or proposition ; as, in the first example, the word applies 
to the preceding affirmation. The Lord hath spoken good, which speakii 
is concerning Israel. Concerning, in this case, refers to the first clause of the sen- 
tence. " In this example it would be better to consider concerning «us referring to 
the noun good. If, as Webster supposes, the primary sense of concern " is to reach 
or extend to, or to look to, as we use regard," another solution may be given. The 
Lord, looking to (regarding) Israel, hath spoken good. "Concerning this point, 
what can we decide ?" We concerning (looking at, regarding) this point ; or what 
thing concerning this point. " He told them [the things] concerning the swine." 

TOUCHING. 

7. "Something that touches (relates to) the lord Hamlet." "Something touching 
(relating to) the lord Hamlet." "Socrates chose rather to die than renounce or 
conceal his judgment touching the unity of the godhead." "We may soon our 
satisfaction have touching that point." "Our late decree in parliament touching 
King Henry's oath." "Horatio will not let belief take hold of him touching this 
dreaded sight." "Touching our person seek we no revenge." "I have found no 
fault in this man touching these things. ' " We have confidence in the Lord touching 
you." "Touching things which relate to discipline the church hath authority to 
make canons and decrecs. ,, " What [thing] have you to say touching this point?" 
" This paper is the history of my knowledge touching her flight." "And now forth- 
with shall articles be drawn touching the jointure that your king must make." 

The verb to touch has the signification of affect, concern, relate to; as, " Nothing 
can touch him further;" "It touches us not." The participle has precisely the 
same signification, and is no more a preposition than is the infinitive. 

REGARDING, RESPECTING, Etc. 

8. "His conduct that respects (relates to) us is commendable." "His conduct 
respecting (relating to) us is commendable." "There is but one opinion respecting 
his conduct." "He has a great deal to say regarding this thing." ''Regarding 
(looking at, considering) this matter we say." "There is none worthy fur] n 

ing (considering) her that's gone." "I am mean indeed [we or men] respecting 
(considering) you." "Resjyecting man whatever [thing] wrong we call." "This 
allusion respects an ancient custom." " This allusion respecting an ancient custom 
is very striking." "Respecting a further appropriation of money it (this thing) is to 
be observed that the resources of the country are inadequate" [Or we respecting, 
looking at a further appropriation]. "Whether our daughter were legitimate 
[ice, or men], respecting this our marriage with the dowager." 

BATING, EXCEPTING, SAVING. 

9. These words belong sometimes to words expressed, sometimes to words of 
general meaning, such as we, men, you, they, indicated by the context; their con- 
struction being the same as that of granting, admitting, etc., in such sentences as 



PREPOSITIONS. 125 

the following: " Granting this to be true, he is not proved guilty;" "Admitting 
her innocence, she was very imprudent." (See Syntax, III.) 

" We have little reason to think that they bring many ideas with them, [we] 
bating (if we bate), perhaps, some faint ideas of hunger and thirst." " The king 
could not choose an advocate whom I would sooner hear on any subject, [we, or I] 
bating (if we bate) his love, than you." " [We] bating (if we leave out) the out- 
ward respect due to his birth, they treated him very hardly." Compare " Bate, I 
beseech you, widow Dido." — Shakespeare. "The prisoners were all condemned, 
[we] excepting three." "Excepting one, I would he were the best in all this pres- 
ence." " [We] excepting (if we except) the royal family, they get but little by it." 
" He ordered the baggage to be brought to one place, [they] excepting only such 
things as were very necessary." " None of them was cleansed, [we] saving (leaving 
out) Naaman the Syrian." " [We] saving (preserving, having due regard to) your 
reverence, he is the devil himself." "[We, I] saving (having due regard to) 
your merry humor, here 's the note." " [We] saving your tale, Petruchio, let us 
speak too." 

DURING, PENDING. 

10. These participles are connected with nouns expressed, which, instead of 
being in the objective, are in the nominative case (nominative absolute). " I hold 
the property during life (life during; that is, while life dures, continues)." Com- 
pare the Latin durante vita. " Our office may, during his power (his power during, 
while his power endures), go sleep." "During which time (which time during), 
he ne'er saw Syracusa." "During his childhood, he was under the care of his 
aunt." "Pending the suit (the suit pending, while the suit was pending, depend- 
ing), he left the country.' " Pending the discussion of this subject (the discussion 
of this subject pending, while the discussion of this subject was pending), a 
memorial was presented." 

The verb to dure was once in common use; as, "Dureth for a while." — English 
Bible. " This battle dured three parts of the night." — Stow. " Paul made a sermon 
during to midnight." — Tyndale. " To love hire while his lif may dure." — Chaucer. 
To endure has the same meaning ; as, " For his mercies aye endure." — Milton. 

The verb to pend is confined to the " progressive forms," or those which denote 
action continuing; as, " The suit is pending ;" " The negotiations were pending;" 
" The suit will be pending/' To depend has the same signification. 

NOTWITHSTANDING. 

11. Here we have two words, the adverb not and the participle withstanding, 
which can not be changed to one word by the stroke of a pen or the omission of a 
printer's space. It is the meaning of words, and not the way in which they may 
chance to be written, that determines their character. Withstanding is to be con- 
strued like during and pending, though it is not always placed before the noun, as 
they are. " This is a correct English idiom, Dr. Lowth's opinion to the contrary 
not withstanding." Here the participle withstanding is modified by the adverb not, 
and belongs to the noun opinion, which is in the nominative case (nominative 
absolute). " Their gratitude made them proclaim the wonders he had done for 
them, not withstanding his prohibition (his prohibition not preventing)." "He is 
rich, not withstanding his loss." " Not withstanding that [thing], the troops must be 
reviewed."* 

*Mr. Goold Brown says, "The compound word notwithstanding in not a parti- 
ciple, because there is no verb to notwithstand. " But there is a verb to withstand, 
and Mr. Brown does not always regard as one word two words which happen to be 
written without a space between them. It is customary to write another as one 
word ; but he separates them, writing an other. Can not may be often seen as one 
word, cannot; yet they are always regarded as two words. Mr. Brown quotes from 



126 ETYMOLOGY. 

If these words in ing are not participles, but prepositions, the list of preposi- 
tions must include several other words which are used in the same way. ''Relating 
to this matter we have little to say." " He expounded the things relating to him- 
self." "Nothing pertaining to me." "Excluding one, I would he were the best in 
all this presence." "Including the captain, nineteen were taken;" "Obedient to 
your grace's will, I come to know your pleasure;" "She saw nothing, owing to 
the darkness, but her own face imaged in the glass."— Dickens. 

EXCEPT. 

12. This is a passive participle, belonging to a noun in the nominative case 
(nominative absolute). In participles derived from the Latin, especially when end- 
ing with the sound of t, the termination ed was often omitted ; that is, the Latin 
root itself was used, without either English or Latin terminations, final e being 
added when necessary to preserve the long sound of the preceding vowel; as, 
" Before I be convict by course of law."— Shakespeare. " He was contract to Lady 
Lucy."— Id. "Compact of unctuous vapor."— Milton. "Convict by flight. "—Id. 
"All thy goods are confiscate." — Sliakespeare. " The fire being create for comfort." — 
Id. So Bacon employs condensate for condensatcd, copulate for copiUattd, etc. 

The following examples will show that except and excepted are alike in con- 
struction: «^i ways exce pi e( i m y dear Claudio. "— Shakespeare. 
" Richard except, those whom we fight against 

Had rather have us win than him they follow."— Id. 
"Thunderbolts excepted, quite a god."— Cowper. 
" God and his son except, 
Nought valued he nor feared."— Milton. 
"I could see nothing except the sky (the sky except, excepted)."* 

Except when followed by the objective case may be regarded as a verb in the 
imperative mood. " Except him, all were dismissed ;" that is, except you him, or 
except we him. " If we only except the unfitness of the judge, all other things 
concurred."— Stilling fleet. The imperative is often employed instead of a condi- 
tional proposition ; and the imperative here would express the idea as completely 
as it is expressed by the conditional proposition; as, "Only except the unfitness 
of the judge, all other things concurred." 

SAVE. 

13. This word is regarded by lexicographers ns a verb in the imperative mood. 
" Israel burned none of them save Hazor only." Webster says, "Save is here a verb 
followed by an object." When it is followed by an objective ease it is used as a 
verb; as, "All were gone, save him who now kept guard."— Rogers. "All d< ■■ 

all save him alone."— Wordsworth. But save is usually followed, not by the i 

ive, but by the nominative; as, "For that mortal dint, save )u who reigns above, 



Bolmgbroke, " He had succeeded, notwithstanding them, peaceablv to the throne." 
In this pa-sa-e uotn-dhstanding is used as a preposition; but the expression is not 
idiomatic English, the true English form being they notwithstanding they not pro- 
venting . 1 he usual manner of expressing this idea is, notwithstanding their oppo- 
sition, or efforts, exertions, etc. 

* Compare the use of the participles reserved and taken in the following pas- 
wxtta that of except: "Whereat all men were abash chiefe 

justice, who humbly exhorted the prince to be contented."— Sir Thomat 
(Cited in Lord CbmpbeU's Lives of the Chief Justices, I, 127.) "Always reserved my 
holy duty."— Cymbdiue. "My soveraine plesance over all thing, out taken Crirt 
on loft. — Chaucer. Except Christ on high, Christ on high being excepted or 
taken out. 



PREPOSITIONS. 127 

none can resist." — Milton. "Not a man depart, save I alone." — Shakespeare. "All 
the conspirators save only he, did that they did in envy of great Caesar." — Id. 
"No man might buy or sell, save he that had the mark." — English Bible. "Save 
we two in the house." — Id. "Not that any man hath seen the Father, save he 
which is of God." — Id. "Every man save thou hath told his tale." — Chaucer. 
"All slept sound, save she who bore them both." — Rogers. 

Save, as commonly used, seems rather to be the adjective safe, f being ex- 
changed for its kindred letter v. Indeed, the original letter is v, since this word 
is derived from the Latin salvus, from which is derived the French sauf (feminine, 
sauve). The leading idea in safe is freedom, exemption (from danger, injury, etc.) ; 
and it would be easy to extend this idea of exemption to other things than danger 
and injury, so that the word should be employed to express exemption from what 
is included in a general statement. "All perished, save he j" that is, he safe, he 
being safe, he excepted (nominative absolute). " But the poor man had nothing, 
save (safe) one little ewe lamb." 

Compare with this form the Latin salva fide, safe faith, faith being preserved ; 
salvo eo, safe (save) that, that being excepted. Also the use of sauf (safe) in French ; 
as, "Portage de toute la par tie libre de V ager publicus, saitf celui de la Campanie." — 
Louis Napoleon. (Partition of all the unappropriated part of the public land, safe 
that of Campania.) 

Chaucer uses sauf with the sense of save; as, "Sauf (safe) his cappe, he rode 
all bare;" "That no man wote thereof, sauf God and he;" "He wol suffre no 
wight bere the key sauf he himself." Some may prefer to consider save an apoco- 
pated participle, like shave, shape, take, confuse, etc., which are employed in old 
English for shaven (shaved), shapen (shaped), taken, confused, etc.; as, "It hadde 
ben anoint."— Chaucer. " His berd was shave as neighe as ever he can."— Id. The 
construction would still be that of the nominative absolute. "All perished, saved 
he"— he saved. 

BUT. 
14. This word is sometimes used as a preposition; as, "Whence all but him 
had fled." — Hemans. The usual form, however, is "all but he." The latter form 
is easily explained if we consider but as a contraction of be out, be being a verb in 
the imperative mood. All had fled, be out he (b'ut he) be he out of the number. 
"But has quite a different history [from the French mais~] ; it meant ' be out,' that 
is ' except '; so the English and the French got to the same meaning by very dif- 
ferent roads."— Peile's Philology, p. 6. 

It is to be observed that the nominative case is used after but without regard 
to the case of the preceding noun ; so that this word can not be said to "connect 
like cases." Thus, 

"My father hath no child but I."— Shakespeare. 
"I do not think 
So fair an outside, and such stuff within, 
Endows a man but he."— Id. 
"I hope it be not gone to tell my lord 
That I kiss aught but he." — Id. 
In these passages child, man, and aught are in the objective case. 
Butan is sometimes a preposition in the Anglo-Saxon language; as, "Butan 
wifum and cildum," without or besides women and children. If but were usually 
followed by the objective case, it would be a preposition ; but as the weight of 
authority is against this construction, the simplest way is to consider but as a 
contraction of be out, and the following nominative the subject of the verb. Those 
who attempt to dispose of this word as a conjunction will find difficulties much 
more embarrassing than that of regarding but (b'ut) as two words, the verb be and 
the adverb out (in Anglo-Saxon ut) ; as don't, which, so far as sound is concerned, 



128 ETYMOLOGY. 

might be written dont, is in reality two words, the verb do and the adverb not.* 
I'll, or He as formerly it was sometimes written, is in reality two words, the pro- 
noun I and the verb will. 

OUT OF. 

15. The two words out of are generally regarded as one preposition ; but out is 
an adverb with a meaning of its own. " lie was not out (ou the outside) of the 
house to-day." Here out is an adverb modifying the verb was, and of is u prepo- 
sition forming with the house an adjunct to out. " Help me out (to the outside) of 
the pit." " We are out (in want) of bread." 

16. When any of the words in the list of prepositions stands without an 
objective case, it is generally an adverb; as, "He is lying down." In many 
cases, however, an objective may be properly supplied ; as in the following pas- 
sage, in which hill is omitted after down, being readily suggested by what 
precedes: .< The ^ ns of F rance) with forty thousand men, 

Marched up a hill, and then marched down again." 

Some Technical Expressions. 

17. The Latin prepositions per and versus are employed in some technical 
expressions; as, "Ten dollars per barrel;" " Smith versus Jones." The French 
preposition sans, without, occurs in Shakespeare; as, "Sans teeth." Some place 
the Latin words plus, minus, and via in the list. As plus and minus are adjectives 
in Latin, and via a noun, it is not necessary to transform them to prepositions. 
The expression "6 minus 3" means 6 less by 3. "The amount of £3,000 per 
annum, less by the students' fees."— Charles Kingsley. Compare dimidio minus, 
less by half. Via signifies by the way {of understood). Goold Brown places among 
prepositions despite, inside, outside, left hand, etc., in such expressions as the follow- 
ing: "Despite old spleen," "inside the room," " oidside the peach," "left hand the 
town." But of should be expressed after such words. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the prepositions, the adjuncts, and the words modified : 
He went from New York. He went to New Orleans. He went 
from New York to New Orleans. The book lies before him. The 
book lies on the table. The book lies before him on the table. The 
book lies on the table before him. I bring fresh showers for the thirsty 
flowers. I bring fresh showers from the sea. I bring from t! 
fresh showers for the thirsty flowers. For the thirsty flowers I bring 
from the sea fresh showers. 

Our country sinks beneath the yoke. Our country sinks beneath 
the yoke of the oppressor. Thomas swam across the river. Thomas 
swam across the river with groat ease. With great '-a-.- Thomas swam 
across the river. I wandered along the mazes of the rivulet. I wan- 

*"Except, and but and save, in the sense of except, are Bometimee followed by 

nominatives, and thus used as conjunctions; but tin- better usage i< to convert 
them into prepositions by putting the substantives after them in the obj< 
ease."— KerVs Tr>uti.<r , in the English l.nnauaqr. if bv "better usage" the author 
means the practice of the best writers he is greatly mistaken : if be means 
treatment, it is not easy to see how those obstinate nominative^ lu and / are to be 
treated so as to be put in the objective case and made to stav there. 



PREPOSITIONS. 129 

dered along the mazes of the rivulet for several hours. He has laughed 
at my losses, mocked at my gains. The company crowded about the 
fire. How bowed the woods beneath their sturdy stroke ! Why should 
I for others groan when none will sigh for me? 

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. Care supplies 
sighs to my breast and sorrow to my eyes. By fairy hands their knell 
is rung. By forms unseen their dirge is sung. No sense have thej 
of ills to come. Gently on thy suppliant's head, dread goddess, lay thy 
chastening hand. They from his presence hid themselves among the 
thickest trees. Above the clouds is the sun still shining. Confusion on 
thy banners wait. From hill to hill, from peak to peak, the echo sounds. 

On a rock, whose haughty brow 
Frowns o'er old Conway's foaming flood, 

Bobed in the sable garb of woe, 

"With haggard eyes the poet stood. — Gray. 

2. Insert an appropriate preposition in the place of the following blanks : 

She moves .... the house. The stars are shining .... us. Edgar 
ran .... the street. I have not seen him .... that time. He threw 
his ball .... the well. Mary often walks .... the bank .... the river. 

There are some good boys .... them them stood the tree of life. 

Not being able to pass .... the thicket, he went .... it. I had never 
seen him .... that time. 

The dogs barked .... me. He wished me to sit ... . him. He 
trades .... London and Paris. His success is .... his expectations. 
He was killed .... the blow .... a hatchet. The stream flows .... the 

side the mountain. The exile longs his country. He fell 

the horse. She walks .... the garden. She walked out the house. 

She walked out the house .... the garden. The pigeons flew 

the barn. He has put all his enemies .... his feet. 

The rope was placed his neck. He has bestowed a valuable 

gift .... them. Sisyphus rolls a huge stone a hill. Break . 

the thick array his thronged legions. She has her friend .... her, 

Stay .... the house. Let him go ... . me ; for I can not go him 

Come the house. Jump the log. He tore his new coat 

the fence. She has no sense .... pain. He dug up the ground . . . 



3. Form sentences each containing one or more of the following prepositions : 
About. Above. After. Along. Among. Around. At. Before. 
Below. Beside. By. From. With. Through. To. Till. Without. 
Under. For. Of. 



130 ETYMOLOGY. 

PAKSING EXERCISES. 

"He died for glory." 

For is a preposition — it is used in connection with the noun glory to 
form an adjunct modifying the verb died. 

Rule.— A preposition with its object forms an adjunct modifying some pre- 
ceding word. 

"John is respectful and obedient to his parents." 

To is a preposition — it is used in connection with the noun parents 
to form an adjunct modifying the adjectives respectful and obedient. 

Rule.— A preposition with its object forms an adjunct modifying some pre- 
ceding word. 

He died for glory. John is respectful and obedient to his parents. 
The books belong to John and William. He sleeps with his ancest 
That boy is devoted to study. They labor from morning till night. 
He has gone to Pensacola. His cottage is surrounded by trees and 
covered with vines. He is walking round the farm. She gazes at 
him from the window. 

ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb; as, "He acts cautiously;" "He is remarkably 
cautious;" "He acts more cautiously." 

In the first example the adverb cautiously modifies the verb acts; 
in the second example remarkably modifies the adjective cautious; in 
the third more modifies the adverb cautiously. 

Remarks.— 1. An adverb is an abridged expression for an adjunct; cautiously 
meaning in a cautious manner, remarkably meaning in a remarkable degree, more 
meaning in a greater degree. So here=in this place, thcn=at that time. 

2. In general we have adverbs for such adjuncts as would be most commonly 
used. Adverbs and adjuncts are often employed indiscriminately to expresi 
same idea ; as, " He acted prudently ;" " He acted with j/rudenee." 

3. Though it is generally true that a word which is equivalent to an adjunct is 
an adverb, yet this is not always the case. A qualifying adjective joined to a 
noun denotes the jiossession of the quality by the object, and such adject iv. 
equivalent to adjuncts formed by of or vrilh denoting possession. "A wise man "— 
"a man of (possessing) wisdom;" "The swift-footed Achilles "=-="Achilles with 
(possessing) the swift foot." Other adjectives expressing the want of quality are 
equivalent to adjuncts formed by the preposition without, denoting negation of 
possession. "An unwise man"="a man without nol possessing) wisdom." 

4. Some adverbs are adjuncts from which the prepositions have been dropped. 
Awhile* = for a while; sometimes = at some times. " Twilight loves to linger for a 

-More properly written as two words, a while, the word while being simply a 
noun^time. 

What is an adverb? 



ADVERBS. 131 

while ;" " Twilight loves to linger a while." " No mortal author knows to what 
use his works may sometime or other be applied." — Addison. Sometime should 
have been written as two words, at being understood. 

5. Such adverbs as aliead, away, are formed by uniting the preposition a with 
nouns. Ahead=at the liead; ashore=on the shore. 

EXERCISES. 

1. What do the adverbs in the following sentences modify? 

He labors diligently. They live happily. She is very industrious. 
The lady was fashionably dressed. Eugene listens attentively. My 
book is here. Go immediately. Thomas was thoroughly disgusted. 
Come again. Come often and stay long. He studies well. The 
enemy was wholly unprepared. He speaks fluently. He speaks very 
fluently. He sometimes studies well. She writes correctly. 

She moves gracefully. I never saw a more graceful person. My 
work is almost done. "When did you see Orlando? Should you like 
to see him again? "Where did you see him? How did he behave? 
Admirably. He was greatly beloved. How often have. you seen the 
rhinoceros? Twice. She never told her love. The basket is full 
enough. 

2. Form sentences each containing one or more of the following adverbs : 
"Wisely. Beautifully. Now. Then. Furiously. Hardly. Once. 
Sometimes. Sooner. Forward. Fast. Slowly. Bravely. Yonder. 
Completely. Out. Away. So. 

CLASSES OF ADVEKBS. 
Adverbs may be arranged in the following classes: 

1. Adverbs oe Time; as, Now, then, when, whenever, soon, often, 
frequently, always, ever, evermore, aye, eternally, once, twice, long, 
previously, formerly, recently, lately, newly, immediately, early, late, 
seldom, never, betimes, sometimes, occasionally, already, yet, hitherto, 
seasonably, continually, henceforth, thenceforth, hereafter, as, before, 
after, till, until, afterward, since, again, while, annually, finally, anon. 

2. Adverbs oe Place; as, Here, there, where, whither, far, hence, 
thence, whence, hither, thither, aside, aloof, aloft, away, yonder, afar, 
somewhere, elsewhere, apart, inward, upward, downward, downwards, 
onward, forward, homeward, outward, on, forth, back, out, off, before, 
behind, above, below, up, down, to, fro. 

3. Adverbs of Degree; as, Very, much, more, most, little, less, 
least, almost, most, mostly, nearly, too, wholly, totally, entirely, quite, 

Name some adverbs of time. Of place. Of degree. 



132 ETYMOLOGY. 

altogether, exceedingly, eminently, excessively, intolerably, tolerably, 
thoroughly, equally, even, so, enough, sufficiently, vastly, partially, no, 
somewhat, hardly, greatly, scarcely, how, however, chiefly, alike, none, 
rather, sooner, the, as, largely. 

4. Adverbs of Manner; as, Well, ill, badly, boldly, gloriously, 
wisely, happily, justly, slowly, prudently, bravely, right, fast, aloud, 
loud, how, thus, as, so, together, anyhow, somehow, nohow, otherwise, 
like, separately, asunder, headlong, pell-mell, helter-skelter, unlikely, 
lengthwise, out. 

5. Adverbs or Cause, Keason, Inference; as, Therefore, hence, 
thence, whence, why, wherefore, so, then, accordingly, consequently, 
necessarily, needs. 

6. Adverbs of Addition and Exclusion ; as, Too, likewise, also, 
besides, only, merely, but, moreover, withal, simply, solely, barely. 

7. Adverbs of Affirmation, Negation, and Doubt; as, Yes, ay, 
yea, truly, certainly, absolutely, verily, surely, doubtless, undoubtedly, 
forsooth, really, indeed, not, nay, no, perhaps, possibly, unquestionably, 
haply, perchance, peradventure, emphatically, decidedly. 

Remarks.— 1. The same word may be placed in more than one class, since it 
may have more than one meaning. 

2. Most adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives by adding ly, from the 
Anglo-Saxon lie, like ; as, just, justly (justlike) ; rich, richly. But in forming adverbs 
from such adjectives as humble Ave drop the silent e and add y, so that the / si 

as both part of the word and part of the termination ; as, humble, humbly; ampU, 
amply ; simple, simply. 

In general when an adjective ends in ly no adverb is formed from it, an 
adjunct being used to express the idea; as, "He acted in a manly manner" not 
manlily. There are, however, a few words in ly which are both adjectives and 
adverbs; as, likely. 

3. To-day, to-morrow, yesterday, which are generally classed with adverbs, are 
nouns; as, " To-day is as yesterday, and to-morrow will be as to-day." When they 
seem to be used as adverbs there is an ellipsis of a preposition ; as, " He departed 
[on] yesterday." 

4. Though adverbs are generally used for such adjuncts only as are joined to 
verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, yet some adverbs may be used as adjuncts to nouns ; 
as, "I saw John only." Here only performs the same office in relation to the 
noun John that it does in relation to the verb saw in the sentence, "I only v.w 
John." In each case it is used to exclude every idea but that expressed by the 
word to which it is joined ; in the one case excluding every object but John, in the 
other every action but srrivn. It will not do to say that the fact of its modifying a 
noun makes it an adjective. " His son only was there " is entirely different from 
" His only son was there." 

The only way in which we can avoid the difficulty regarded as involved in 
representing an adverb as modifying a noun is by supposing a verb or a participle 
understood. " I saw John only (onely) "*=" I saw John being in a state of on 
in a state excluding all others." 

Name some adverbs of manner. ' Some adverbs of addition and exclusion. 

Some adverbs of cause, reason, inference. | Some of affirmation, negation, and doubt. 



ADVEEBS. 133 

Adverbs and adjuncts frequently modify verbs or participles understood ; as, 
" God above deal between me and thee." Here above modifies not the noun God, 
but the verb is understood. "God who is above deal between me and thee." 
"He learned this from a dozen voices [speaking] together." "They could talk 
whole hours [taken, coming] together upon any thing."— Addison. " He lived in 
Nashville, and his house there was very large." "A man recently from California." 
" On once a flock-bed, but repaired with straw, great Villiers lies." — Pope. 

5. Adverbs sometimes modify adjuncts ; as, " He dwells far beyond St. Louis ;" 
" The boat started long before noon ;" "Even in our ashes live their wonted fires ;" 
"Even at that time the morning cock crew loud ;" " Trembling even at the name of 
Mortimer ; " " The train will start at that time precisely. ' ' 

6. Some adverbs are often used in the sense of adjuncts containing relative 
pronouns; "The grave where (in which) our hero was buried." — Wolfe. "Time 
was wlien I was free as air."— Cowper. 

7. The is sometimes an adverb ; as, "Tlie smoother the surface is the deeper the 
water is "=" The water is deep in the degree in which the surface is smooth." 

Tiie thus used is from the ablative case {thy, the) of the Anglo-Saxon se, that, the, 
which is also used as a relative. "By what smoother the surface is by that deeper 
the water is." The idea is sometimes (clumsily) expressed in imitation of a Latin 
form . "By how much smoother the surface is by so much deeper the water is." 

8. Participles are sometimes employed as adverbs; as, "My clothes will be 
dripping wet." So we say scalding hot (so hot as to scald), passing strange, exceeding 
strange (so strange as to pass [surpass], exceed other strange things). 

9. Nay, no, and not/-- are called negative adverbs. Nay is nearly obsolete. In 
the negative answer to a question not is generally used when the other words of 
the answer are expressed, and no when they are omitted. " Has James ever read 
the book?" is answered by " He has not read it," or by " No." No is then to be 
considered a form of the negative adverb used when the modified words are 
omitted. 

Some assert that no as thus used is independent. Independent of what? It is 
employed to deny something. It does not stand independent of its surroundings 
and refer to nothing. No, in answer to the question, " Has James ever read the 
book?" gives a negative to the implied sentence, "James has read the book." 
The question might be answered by the adverb never; as, "He has never read 
the book," or, suppressing the other words, "Never." No in the answer is no more 
independent than never. 

10. Yes is generally used to denote assent in answer to a question, and it may 
be regarded as modifying some word in a manner similar to no. " Has James ever 
read the book ?" "Yes." "Certainly." 

::: Horne Tooke, speaking of "not and its abbreviate no," says: "But we need 
not be any further inquisitive, nor, I think, doubtful concerning the origin and 
signification of not and no, since we find that in the Danish nodig, and in the 
Swedish nodig, and in the Dutch noode, node, and no, mean averse, unwilling." 
It is not necessary to go so far in search of the origin of not. It is simply the word 
naught (nat, with a broad), with no change in the pronunciation but the shorten- 
ing of the vowel-sound, short o being the short sound corresponding to broad a. 
Chaucer often uses naught (sometimes nat) where we use not; as, " [Action's dogs] 
freten (devour) him, for that they knew him naught." The nature of the word is 
illustrated in the following sentences : "I am in nothing deceived ;" "I am nothing 
deceived;" "I am in naught deceived;" "I am naught deceived;" "I am not 
deceived." "We doubt it nothing;" "We doubt it naught;" "We doubtitnof." 
"Which not enriches him;" "Which naught enriches him;" "Which nothing 
enriches him." 

"Adverbs promote brevity. They are not absolutely necessary to convev our 
thoughts. Perhaps we could dispense with all of them except not." — Kerl's Treatise 
on the English Language. It may be seen that we could dispense with not more 
conveniently than we could dispense with many other adverbs. 



134 ETYMOLOGY. 

11. Some adverbs are used as introductory, transitional, or expletive; as, 
"Well, let us go;" '•JS'ow, Barabbas was a robber;" " Why, you told me so your- 
self;" "Nay, I will say more." 

12. Such phrases as to and fro, by tlie bye, by and by, well nigh, out and out, no 
more, long ago, so so, ever and anon, ttxc best, all over, all along, ever so, have been 
called "adverbial phrases," as if the separate words had no meaning of their own. 
Bnt to has a meaning of its own, and so has fro ; and there is no greater propriety 
in huddling them together than there would be in making an " adverbial phrase ' 
of backward and forward By Hie bye is an adjunct, bye meaning way; as, " There 
is, upon the bye (by the way), to be noted the percolation."— Bacon. We employ 
ever and anon merely to give greater force by repetition, just as we employ over and 
over, again and again, many a time and oft. By and by is used in the same way. 
" 1 will come by and by "=" 1 will come soon and soon." Ever is one word, and 
so is another, each having its own meaning. " Wrangle ever so long." Here long 
is modified by so, and so by ever. " He was very nigh dead ;" " He was well nigh 
dead." In the former sentence the adverb nigh is modified by the adverb very, 
and in the latter the same adverb is modified by the adverb well. In the sentence, 
"He died long ago," ago is modified by long , ago denoting that the time is past, 
and long that it is long past. Other expressions of the kind are to be explained 
in a similar way. , 

13. Ago is an old participle of the verb to go, meaning gone. " Worldly joye 
is soone ago."— Chaucer. When it is connected with a noun the simplest way of 
parsing it is to regard it as a participle. In this sentence, " He died a year ago," 
year is in the nominative absolute with the participle ago. A year ago=a year 
gone, a year being gone (since the event). When the noun is omitted ago is parsed 
as an adverb. " He died long ago"=" He died a long time ago." 

14. From several adjuncts in common use the noun has been dropped, and 
the name of " adverbial phrase " has been given to the preposition and adjective. 
Such are in vain (in a vain manner), at last, at the last (at the last time, stage, event), 
to the last, at most, at the most (at the most, or highest, degree), at least, at the least 
(estimate, etc.), at best, at the best (state), at present (time), at first, at the first , from the 
first (time, etc.), in particular (manner), in general (manner, degree, etc.), in few 
(words), in short (phrase), in private (manner, state, etc.), in public (manner, etc.), 
in full (manner, degree, etc.), of old (time), of late (time), on high (place), above all 
(things), by far (by a far, or great, degree). Such expressions may, for the sake of 
distinction, be called elliptical adjuncts. 

Some make "adverbial phrases" of such simple adjuncts as at random, in fine, 
in conclusion, of course, for the most part, at length, by no means ; for what reason it is 
not easy to see. 

15. Adverbs are sometimes used in such a way as to become nouns; as, from 
hence, from afar, from above, from within, till noiv, till then, before long, ere long, at once, 
(at one time), this once, for aye, for ever- (for all time). In the phrase some how or 
other the word how is used in the sense of manner. 

As hence, thence, and whence contain in themselves the idea of from, the from 
before them is superfluous. 

16. Here, there, where, in the compounds formed by the union of those words with 
the prepositions at, in, of, by, for, etc., are equivalents to this, that, which. Hereto— 
in this, whercby=by which, therefore (therefor) —for (hat (reason, etc.), wher- 
which. These compounds are not so generally used as formerly. The re f 

•In this country these two words are generally written ns one; In England 
they are properly kept separate. There is no greater propriety in making one 
word of for ever than there would he in making one word of for aye or of forever 
and ever. If we nre to write ere long as one word, as some do (erelong), we "should 
write before long in the same way (bcforclong). 



ADVEEBS. 135 

wherefore are often called conjunctions, though they are no more conjunctive than 
are therein, wherein, etc. 

17. Than is generally regarded as a conjunction ; but it is an adverb, a con- 
junctive adverb.' Compare these sentences: " He is as benevolent as he is rich;" 
" He is more benevolent than he is rich ;" " He is benevolent in that degree in which 
he is rich ;" " He is benevolent in a degree equal to that in which he is rich ;" " He 
is benevolent in a degree above that in which he is rich." It will be seen that in 
denoting the superiority than performs the same office that as performs in denoting 
the equality. ' ' Mary is wiser than James "=' ' Mary is wise in a degree above that 
in which James is wise." 

The explanation which Home Tooke, Richardson, and some others give of this 
construction is that than means then. "Mary is wiser first, then James is wise." 
A very unsatisfactory attempt at explanation. Mr. Mulligan's explanation is 
much more satisfactory. Thonne (thone, thanne) is the Anglo-Saxon accusative of 
se, that; and Mr. M. supposes that the preposition ofer, over, has been suppressed 
before this accusative. " He is taller than his brother "=" He is taller over that 
(degree) his brother is tall." In support of Mr. Mulligan's explanation may be 
quoted such passages as An steorra ofer othre beorht, a star bright over others. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVEEBS. 

Some adverbs are sometimes used in such a way as to be equivalent 
to two adjuncts, of which one contains a relative pronoun, the other 
the antecedent; as, "I shall see you when (at the time at which) you 
come;" "The book is not where (in the place in which) I left it." 

A conjunctive adverb modifies two verbs; of the two adjuncts 
forming the equivalent that which contains the antecedent modifies 
one verb, and that which contains the relative modifies the other. 

Remarks.— 1. In reality these words are of the nature of the relative with the 
antecedent omitted, the antecedent adverb or adjunct being omitted. "I shall 
see you when you come "=" I shall see you then (at the time) when (at which) you 
come '" "It placed was 

There where the mouldered earth had caved the bank."— Spenser. 
"You are transported by calamity 

Thither where more awaits you. "— Shakespeare. 
"When Greek joined Greek then was the tug of war."— Nat. Lee. 

2. The adverbs used in this way are such as when, while, as, where, wherever, 
whenever, wheresoever. 

3. It is to be observed that but few of these words are always conjunctive 
adverbs. Some of them are sometimes used instead of adjuncts containing inter- 
rogative or indefinite pronouns; as, "When (at what time) will he come?" "Tell 
me when (at what time) he will come." 

4. It is easy to distinguish conjunctive adverbs from others. If the adverb is 
equivalent to two adjuncts, it is a conjunctive adverb ; if it is not equivalent to 
two adjuncts, it is not a conjunctive adverb. Many writers on grammar seem 
unable to see the distinction. " ' I know not how it is done.' Here how is equiva- 
lent to the manner in which. The first part, ' the manner,' is the object of know, and 
the second, ' in which,' is the adjunct of ' is done.' " — fivllions's Anal. and. Practical 
English Grammar. If hoio were equivalent to the manner in which, it would not be a 

What is a conjunctive adverb ? What does a conjunctive adverb modify ? 



136 ETYMOLOGY. 

conjunctive adverb according to the writer's own definition ; for the manner is not 
an adjunct. But how is not equivalent to the manner in which, but to in what man- 
ner, and the object of know is the whole proposition, how it is done. " I saw how a 
pin is made."— KtrVs Common-School Grammar. How is not a conjunctive adverb. 
What did I see? How a pin is made. " Can you tell how he manages to recite so 
well?" "No one knows when the world will end." "I know where Patagonia 
is."— Weld and Quackenbos's New English Grammar. Not one of the italicised words 
is a conjunctive adverb. " I do not know why I was sent, how I can cross the river, 
where I am to go, or when I must return."— Quackenbos's English Grammar. There 
is not a single conjunctive adverb here. There is of course a close connection 
between the transitive verb know and the dependent propositions, becauM 
propositions are the objects of the verb ; but the conjunctive quality is not in the 
adverb. " 'No one knew how to use gold more effectually than Philip, king of 
Macedon.' The leading verb knew is modified by the adverb how, which is itself 
modified by the infinitive to use." — Quackenbos's English Grammar. The confusion 
here is remarkable. Knew is not modified by how, but by its object, how to use 
gold; and to use is modified by how, not how by to use. " I know not whither he has 
gone." — Mason's English Grammar. Whither is not a conjunctive adverb. " ' I know 
when he wrote the letter;' when connects the clauses / know and he wrote, and 
modifies know and wrote.' 1 — BurVs Practical Eng. Grammar. When does not modify 
know— does not tell the time of knowing. The two propositions are connected as 
verb and object. What do I know ? When he wrote the letter. 

5. When the prepositions after, before, ere, till, until, since are placed before 
propositions they are generally regarded as conjunctive adverbs ; but it is better 
to regard them as prepositions having as objects noun-propositions instead of 
nouns. " I saw him before his departure;" " I saw him before he departed." The 
preposition without (in the sense of except, unless) was formerly much used before 
propositions ; as, " I will not go without he goes." (See foot-note, p. 179, and Rule 
VI, Remark 4.) 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following adverbs are conjunctive adverbs ? 

The book is where you laid it. [In the place in which.] Where 
did you lay it? [In what place.] Do you know where you laid it? It 
was lying on the table when 1 saw it. [At the time at which.] When 
did you see it? [At what time.] I do not know when I saw it. Stay 
while I am gone. [For the time in which.] You may play after I am 
gone. [After is a preposition having for its object the noun-proposition 
J am gone, though it is often called a conjunctive adverb.] Do not 
play as you go to school. 

When will he return?' Can you tell when he will return? He 
rode the horse before he bought it. [Before is a preposition having f<>r 
its object the noun-proposition he bought it.~\ He reads whenever (at 
any time at which) he can find an opportunity. He sleeps wherever 
night overtakes him. There might they see whence Po and later came. 
Tell how he formed your shining frame. I know why he did it. The 
man is wiser than the woman. He did not know where to lay his head. 
He can not tell when he ought to do it. When sorrows come, they 
come not single spies, but in battalions. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 137 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

A few adverbs are compared by adding er and est; as, soon, sooner, 
soonest; often, qftener, oftenest; fast, faster, fastest. 

The following are irregularly compared: badly or ill, worse, vjorst; 
far, farther, farthest ; forth, further, furthest ; little, less, least; much, 
more, most; well, better, best. Rather is the comparative of an obsolete 
positive rath, rathe, soon, early. The positive rathe is used by Tenny- 
son: "Rathe she rose." 

With many adverbs more and most may be used as with adjectives ; 
as, more frequently, most frequently ; but more and most should be 
regarded as themselves modifiers, not as parts of the adverbs which 
they modify. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

She sings sweetly. He behaved badly. Beasts should be treated 
kindly. Be more cautious. Act more wisely. I have seen him often. 
He writes very rapidly. He studies when you play. Do you know 
when he studies? 

I know not whence you come. "Where the tree falls there will it 
lie. How did he act? Nobly. Where does he live? There. The 
oftener I see him the more I like him. He is a very worthy man. 
Perseverance generally succeeds. I do not know when he came. Then 
rushed the steed to battle driven. Ear flashed the red artillery. 

Improve time as it flies. Live while you live. He is very easily 
offended. She has been liberally educated. The vine still clings to 
the mouldering wall. Where vice prevails misery abounds. Can you 
tell how she pacified the angry man? I saw him after he had left the 
house. He can not stay till you return. 

Where ignorance is bliss 
'T is folly to be wise. — Gray. 

"She sings sweetly." 
Sweetly is an adverb — it modifies the verb sings. 
Rule.— Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 
11 He studies when you play." 
When is a conjunctive adverb — it is equivalent to two adjuncts, at 
the time and at which; it modifies the verbs studies and play. 
Rule.— Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 

Are adverbs ever compared? I How is well compared? 

How is badly or ill compared? Little? What are more and 7nost when they mod- 
Far t Much t \ ify adverbs ? 

12 



138 ETYMOLOGY. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect propositions or 
similar parts of propositions; as, "Magnanimity in politics is 
not seldom the truest wisdom, and a great empire and little 
minds go ill together." — Burke. 

Here the first and connects two propositions; the second and con- 
nects two logical subjects, a great empire and little minds. 

Conjunctions, besides connecting propositions, may connect — 

1. Nouns in the same construction; as, "Peter and John went to the 
temple;" "He spoke to Mary and me." 

2. Adjectives or participles belonging to the same noun; as, •• My 
father gave me serious and excellent advice;" " The soul's dark cottage, 
battered and decayed." 

3. Adjuncts modifying the same word; as, "He finds them in the 
woods and by the streams." 

4. Adverbs modifying the same word ; as, " We are fearfully and 
wonderfully made." 

5. Prepositions having the same object ; as, " He walks up and down 
the street." 

6. Verbs having the same subject; as, " Birds chirp and sing" 

7. Verbs having the same object; as, "They gather and eat the 
fruit." 

8. Infinitives in the same construction; as, "They go out to see and 
be seen." 

9. Gerunds in the same construction ; as, " He is fond of reading and 
writing." 

Remark.— Some grammarians say that conjunctions always connect proposi- 
tions, " Peter and John went to the temple " being equivalent to " Peter went to 
the temple " and "John went to the temple." But there are sentences which can 
not be analyzed in this way; as, "John and Mary are a handsome couple ;" " Two 
and three make five ;" "A great empire and little minds go ill together." We can 
not say. "John is a handsome couple and Mary is a handsome couple." 

Conjunctions are divided into two classes, codrdinative and 
snbordinative. 

What is a conjunction? ; In "We are fearfully and wonderfully 

What are connected in " Peter and John l made " ? 

went to the temple"? In " Be walks up and down the street"? 

In " My father gave me serious and ex- In " Rirds chirp and Bing" ? 

celleiit advice " ? I In " They gather and eat the fruit " ? 

In " He finds them by the woods and In " They go out to see and be seen " ? 

streams " ? | In " He is fond oi reading and writing " ? 



CONJUNCTIONS. 139 

A Coordinative Conjunction connects propositions, or 
parts, of propositions, of equal rank; as, "Art is long, and 
time is fleeting;" "Rhoda and Lila have come;" "James or 
Edward will gain the prize;" "Laura will go, but Alice 
will stay." 

A Subokdinattve Conjunction connects a modifying 
proposition to the modified part of the principal proposition; 
as, "Repent, lest ye perish;" "The ship will soon sail, since 
the wind is favorable." 

And, both, either, or, neither, nor, but are the principal coordinative 
conjunctions. 

For, since, as, because, if,® whether, though, although, unless, lest are 
the principal subordinative conjunctions. 

Both is used with and, either with or, and neither with nor, to mark 
the connection more forcibly; as, "Both John and James were there;" 
"Either John or James was there;" "Neither John nor James was 
there." 

Whether and or are sometimes correlative; as, "I do not know 
whether he will go or stay." 

Remarks. — 1. Both was originally merely a limiting adjective referring to two 
objects ; as, "John and James were both present ;" "Both [persons] John and James 
were present;" "He lost both [things] his money and his character." From its 
emphatic character in such sentences both seemed to give force to the connective 
idea expressed by and, and this secondary office has often overshadowed the orig- 
inal meaning, so that the word has been employed to mark a connection between 
more than two; as, "To whom both heven and erthe and see is seen." — Chaucer. 
" He assisted both the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian."— Johnson. " They who both. 
made peace with France, composed the internal dissensions of the country, and 
restored its free constitution."— Brougham. " Both he and they and you."— Shakes- 
peare. "Both man and bird and beast." — Coleridge. Either and neither were also 
originally limiting adjectives, each referring to two objects ; but they have come to 
be used as conjunctions marking the connection between several objects; as, 
"Either so distant, so little, or so inconsiderable."— Addison. "Neither death nor life 
nor angels nor principalities nor powers." — English Bible. 

2. The word that is often used before propositions ; as, " He is a fool in that he 
believes others to be as deceitful as he ;"=" He is a fool in that [thing] he believes 
others to be as deceitful as he." " He was punished for that [thing] he had broken 
a positive law." In each of these sentences that is a limiting adjective belonging 
to a noun understood, the following proposition being in apposition with the 
noun. When that is omitted the proposition itself stands as the object of the 
preposition. When Shylocksays of Antonio, " I hate him for he is a Christian," 
he means "I hate him for being a Christian," for being a preposition having lie is a 
Christian for its object. (See foot-note, p. 196.) 

::: See Remark 6. 
What is a coordinative conjunction ? What is a subordinative conjunction ? 



140 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. Such prepositions as before, after, since have come to he used directly hefore 
propositions by the omission of that. "After that I had seen him once I did not 
wish to see him again;" "Before that Philip called thee I saw thee." That la, 
after that [thing] I had seen him once ; before that [thing] expressed by the prop- 
osition Philip called thee. By the omission of that the following proposition stands 
after the preposition as its object. "After I had seen him once ;" " Before Philip 
called thee." Prepositions thus used before propositions have precisely the same 
meaning that they have when used before nouns. 

4. These remarks lead to the understanding of the true nature of such words 
as save, saving, except, but, provided, if, though, notwithstanding, etc. 

"Thou born to eat and be despised and die, 
Even as the beasts that perish, save that thou 
Hadst a more splendid trough and wider sty."— Byron. 
That [thing], thou hadst a more splendid trough and wider sty being safe (saved, 
excepted). 

"There is no difference, except that some are heavier than others." That 
[thing], some are heavier than others, except (being excepted). 

"What remains but that the sentence pass?" What remains be out that 
[thing] the sentence pass? Thing subject of the verb be in the imperative; the 
proposition the sentence pass in apposition with thing. 

" He is still rich, notwithstanding his losses ;" " He is still rich, notwithstand- 
ing that he has lost so much;" " He is still rich, notwithstanding he has lost so 
much ;" " He has lost much ; he is, notwithstanding, rich." Withstanding in these 
passages is a participle modified by the adverb not, and having a noun or a propo- 
sition as nominative absolute. He is still rich, his losses not withstanding. He 
is still rich, that he has lost so much not withstanding ; or that [thing] he has lost 
so much. He is still rich, he has lost so much not withstanding. He has lost 
much; he is, not withstanding this (this thing not withstanding), rich. 

5. The imperative mood, the imperfect participle, and the passive participle 
may be used with propositions (either with or without that) ; but this use does not 
make conjunctions of them. "Admit that phosphorus is an essential part of the 
brain, is not phosphorus to be derived from other food than fish?" "Admitting 
that phosphorus," etc. "Admitted that phosphorus," etc. Admit is a verb in the 
imperative mood, having you or we as subject; admitting is an imperfect participle 
belonging to we, you, or some other general word; admitted is a passive participle 
belonging to thing understood (or, it may be said, to the whole proposition intro- 
duced by that). In the same way may be used grant, grant big, granted; suppose, 
supposing, supposed; seeing, saving, assuming, etc. Provided has been called a con- 
junction ; but it is simply a participle. " This act provides that no injury shall be 
done to others ;" " It is provided that no injury shall be done to others;" "Provided 
that no injury shall be done to others ;" " That no injury shall be done to others 
being provided." 

6. If, formerly gif* is from the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. Gif is still 
retained in the Scottish dialect, as in the following passage, in which if and gif 
are used in the same sense : 

"Yet if your catalogue be fou, 
I 'se no insist; 
But gif ye want ae friend that *s true, 
I'm on your list."— Hums. 
This word is said by Home Tooke to be in the second person of the imperative 
mood. "If he said so, it is true "=" Give (grant, admit, concede) he said so, it is 

::: The Anglo-Saxon g was often sounded like y; and it is from this circum- 
stance that such words as ge,gcoc, in Anglo-Saxon have become ye, yoke, in RngH«h T 
From gif, pronounced yij, it would be easy to drop the comparatively weak 
sound of >j. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 141 

true." Gin, evidently a contraction of the participle given (Anglo-Saxon giferi)* 
is found in the Scottish dialect ; as, 

"Gin I had kend he was your son, 

"He had ne'er been slayne by me." — Ballad of Gil Morrice. 
That is, given I had known he was your son, he had never been slain by me. This 
use of gin leads to the idea that gif is not the imperative, but the participle gifen 
apocopated. 

7. Though is from the participle thought (Anglo-Saxon thoht). "Though (thought, 
supposed, assumed) he slay me, yet will I trust in him ;" " For thoucht he [Mac- 
beth] happen to be ane king, his empire sail end unhappily."— Bellenden. 

8. In a regular discourse all the parts are connected in some way, but the name 
conjunction is applied to such words only as can not be placed in any other class. 
For this reason, in like manner, in addition, by the way, at the same time, in accordance 
with this, and many other phrases mark connection ; but it is not proper to call 
them conjunctions. 

9. For as much as (for much in that degree in which, sometimes written foras- 
much as), in as much as (inasmuch as), in so much that (insomuch that), as well as, and 
other phrases of the kind may for the sake of convenience be called connective 
phrases. But the separate words have each their own meaning ; as, "John read as 
well (properly) as James;" "John as well (truly) as James read." The adverb 
well has in the latter sentence a different meaning from that which it has in the 
former, but the construction in the two sentences is the same. "His brother 
writes as well as he." This may be taken in two different senses by giving dif- 
ferent meanings to well; but, whatever meaning is given to the word, the gram- 
matical construction is not changed. 

10. The adverbs yet, also, still, otherwise, moreover, furthermore, besides, therefore, 
wherefore, else, hence, thence, likewise, nevertheless, accordingly, consequently, etc., are 
sometimes called conjunctions. "Though he made great efforts, yet (in spite of 
this) he failed." Yet, adverb modifying failed. He made great efforts; still he 
failed." "He is a chemist, and he is also (in addition to this) a poet." Also, 
adverb modifying is. "He is likewise a poet." "He is moreover a poet." "He 
is furthermore a poet." " He neglected his business, therefore (for that reason) he 
failed." Therefore, adverb modifying failed. "Wherefore (for which reason) he 
failed." "Hence (for this reason) he failed." "Whence (for which reason) he 
failed." "Thence he failed." "Consequently he failed." "Accordingly he failed." 
"I have lost my money; otherwise (under other circumstances) I could help you." 
" I have lost my money ; else I could help you." " He was forbidden to go ; never- 
theless (not the less) he went." Besides is more properly a preposition. "He is a 
chemist; he is besides [this] a poet." 

11. In such sentences as the following so and as are by some regarded as con- 
junctions: " She is as amiable as her sister ;" "As two is to four, so is five to ten ;" 
" No lamb was e'er so mild as he ;" "He acted as he was directed to act." In these 
sentences as and so are adverbs. She is amiable in the degree in which her sister is 
amiable. Five is to ten in the proportion in which two is to four. No lamb was e'er 
mild in the degree in which he is mild. He acted in the manner in which he was 
directed to act. 

EXERCISES. 
What do the following conjunctions connect? 
Andrew and Thomas went to the river. Virtue is praised and 
neglected. The moon and stars were shining. You will be despised, 



142 ETYMOLOGY. 

and he will be honored. George and James will go. George or James 
will go. Both George and James will go. Either George or James 
will go. Neither George nor James will go. He is happy because he 
is good. Because he is good he is happy. John will go, but Mary will 
stay. He was poor though he might have been rich. Though he might 
have been rich, he was poor. Repent, lest ye perish. Unless you will 
stay, I will not go. I will not go, unless you will stay. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 
The preceding exercises may be parsed in full. 
"Andrew and Thomas went to the river." 
And is a conjunction — it connects two nouns, Andrew and Thomas, 
in the same construction. 

Rule.— Conjunctions connect propositions or similar parts of propositions. 

"You will be despised, and he will be honored" 
And is a conjunction — it connects the two propositions, you will be 
despised and he will be honored. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word used in exclamation and having 
no grammatical connection; as, "01 what a fall was there!" 

The following are some of the principal interjections: O, oh, ah, 
alas, alack, ha, fudge, pish, tush, pshaw, poh, pooh, fie, ho, holla, hollo, 
halloo, lo, aha, hail, huzza, hurrah, tut, humph, heigh-ho, heyday, hist, 
bravo, adieu, avaunt. 

Some words belonging to other parts of speech are called interjec- 
tions when they are uttered in an unconnected and forcible manner; 
as, Strange! what! behold! off! away ! farewell ! whist! 

Remarks.— 1. Bravo is an Italian adjective. Adieu is composed of two French 
words a and dieu, meaning to God [I commend you]. dear me! is a corruption of 
the Italian phrase, Dio mio, O my God ! 

2. The word interjection is from the Latin interjicere, to throw between or among, 
and interjections derive their name from being regarded as thrown among the 
parts of a discourse without being grammatically connected with any part. 

3. Some writers make a distinction between and oh, using before the name 
of the person addressed, and oh in other cases; as, "Hear, O Israel!" "Oh! how- 
happy I am!" But this distinction is generally disregarded, and oh is gradually 
going out of use. 

4. An interjection, like the cry of an animal, expresses the meaning of a whole 
sentence. When a child that strikes it head against a table cries "O!" it means 

What is an interjection? I When are words belonging to other parts 

Name some of the principal interjections | of speech called interjections? 



SAME WOED IN DIFFERENT CLASSES. 143 

" I am hurt." In "Alas ! those happy days are no more !" alas means " I am sad," 
or something equivalent. 

This fact furnishes an explanation of such expressions as "O for a lodge in 
some vast wilderness!" "O that I had the wings of a dove!" "Alas that thou 
shouldst die!" When he uses such expressions the speaker has in his mind the 
sentence whose meaning is expressed by the interjection, and he in effect forgets its 
character as an interjection and makes of it a leading proposition. Any explana- 
tion that supposes an ellipsis, such as " O ! [I wish] for a lodge in some vast Avilder- 
ness !" is unsatisfactory. There is not an ellipsis of I wish, but is used for I wish. 
" Fie upon your law "=" Shame be upon your law." 

PAESING EXEBISES. 

"He died, alas! in early youth." 

Alas is an interjection — it is used in exclamation and has no 
grammatical connection. 

Rule.— Interjections have no grammatical connection with other words. 

He died, alas! in early youth. Ah! then and there was hurrying 
to and fro ! O ! make her a grave where the sunbeams rest. 

SAME WORD IN DIFFERENT CLASSES. 
Many words belong to more than one part of speech ; iron, 
for instance, may be either a noun, a verb, or an adjective; as, 
"Iron is a hard metal;" "To iron clothes;" "An iron rod." 

EXERCISES. 

Name the parts of speech to which the words in italics belong: 
He is your equal. Equal rights. The Gauls equal the Britons in 
bravery. James was his rival for the crown. They have rival claims. 
They rival each other. They counterfeit grief. Counterfeit coin. It 
is a counterfeit. He paid fancy prices for them. This struck his fancy. 
You fancy riches more. He is the worst boy in the school. When the 
worst comes to the worst. They ivorst their enemies. A worse chair I 
have never seen. She reads worse than ever. He is now a better boy. 
He reads better than she does. Can they better their condition? To 
get the better of an enemy. That 's an ill phrase. Ill fares the land. 
There is some ill a-brewing to my rest. 

The way was long. I long for a change. Long live the king. The 
right hand. He has a right to the property. He acted right in that 
matter. Let us right the injured man. You wrong me, Brutus. He 
gave a wrong answer. Friend, I do thee no wrong. He read the pas- 
sage wrong. The stream is very rapid. He is the very man. He is less 

In how many ways may the word iron be used? 



144 ETYMOLOGY. 

idle than she. My happiness is less than yours. The last day of the 
week. It can not last longer. When was it she last walked? The 
cobbler is not to go beyond his last. His back is weak. He made the 
horse back. Do not look back. He lives somewhere in the back set- 
tlements. 

He is reading a poem. This is pleasant reading. She is writing a 
letter. The writing was illegible. No man is perfectly happy. He is 
no better than he should be. This is the man that I saw. I have seen 
that book. For a while he was very diligent. They while away the 
time. Make hay while the sun shines. This is his second attempt A 
second in a duel. He will succeed if you second him. He reads well. 
Is your father well? The bucket is in the well. See the water iccll out 
of the ground. 

Put on your coat. Put the book on the table. Up rose the sun, and 
up rose Emily. The squirrel ran tip the tree. 

The best boy. I love him best. I will do my best. His clothes Jit 
him well. This is a, Jit time. This is a good Jit. 

That is an abstract subject. He made an abstract of the book. He 
attempted to abstract money from the bank. The evil that men do lives 
after them. He leads an evil life. The elder son was appointed. He is 
an elder in the church. 

Put out the light. This is a light room. Light this candle. They 
rest from their labors. He wishes to take some rest. Wet the sponge. 
A wet sponge. He has been in the wet all day. 

A Jine lady. He was made to pay a Jine. The court may Jine him. 
You reason well. That is a good reason. The winds roar. In the 
roar of the storm. They proceeded to part the booty. Each shall 
have his part. 

This is pleasant work. They work all day. They never meet now. 
He received a meet reward for his services. He went of his own accord. 
They accord him deserved praise. A beggarly account of empty b 
We must account for the use we make of our time. 

He broke his arm. Arm yourselves immediately. They cheat him 
of his land. He is a vile cheat. The trick of a juggler. They trick 
one another. The fruit has an acid taste. This substanee is an acid. 

The day is Jar spent. He went into a Jar country. The Jerret 
caught a rabbit. Let us Jerret him out. It is a pleasant drink. Do 
not drink so much. An expert surgeon. He appears a 

His army met with a sad defeat. They are making every effort to 
dejeat him. She made a fine display. They will display their colors. 
Direct his course. He took a direct course, 



SYNTAX. 145 



SYNTAX. 



SENTENCE— PROPOSITION— SUBJECT— PEEDICATE. 

Syntax treats of the structure of sentences. 

A Sentence is an arrangement of words in one or more 
propositions to express a thought; as, "John learns;" "John 
learns when he studies." 

A Proposition is an arrangement of words containing a 
subject and a predicate; "John learns;" "He studies." 

The Subject denotes that of which something is affirmed ; 
as, "John learns." 

The Predicate denotes that which is affirmed; as, "John 



The word affirm is here taken in a general sense, applying to ques- 
tions, commands, entreaties, and exhortations. 

Remarks.— 1. The name of the person addressed forms no part of the prop- 
osition, being employed merely to call attention to what is contained in the 
proposition; as, "William, John learns." 

2. The subject is a word or a combination of words; it denotes, not is, that of 
which something is affirmed. The predicate is not affirmed of the subject, the 
word, but of what is denoted by the subject. "John is careless." Here is careless 
is not affirmed of the word John, but of the person. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the person or thing (or persons or things) spoken of in each of the 
following sentences, and then tell what is said of that person or thing (or those 
persons or things) : 

Mary learns. Thomas reads. James studies. Mary learns rapidly. 
James studies diligently. Thomas reads well. Thomas reads poetry 
well. Mary learns very rapidly. James studies arithmetic very dili- 
gently. Mary learns grammar and music very rapidly. 

Books please. Good books please. Some good books please. Boys 
run. Those boys run. Those three young boys run. Bain fell. A 
heavy rain fell. The moon shines. The stars fade. Ducks swim. 
Sparrows fly. 

Of what does syntax treat? What does the subject denote? 

What is a sentence? A proposition? | What does the predicate denote? 

13 



146 SYNTAX. 

The moon shines bright. The stars fade from the sky. The sun 
sets in the west. The sparrows fly from tree to tree. The ducks swim 
from shore to shore. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. 
A heavy rain fell during the night. Nine beautiful ducks swam from 
shore to shore. 

A wise son makes a glad father. Theodore went from London to 
Paris. The thrush sang sweetly all the morning. Joseph recited his 
lesson. Joseph recited his lesson two hours ago. George is coming. 
George is coming to pay us a visit. Four dear friends are coming to 
pay us a visit next week. 

The boys use steel pens. All the boys in the school use steel pens. 
This boy's name is John. That girl's name is Sarah Jane Roland. 
John, "William, Andrew, and Robert have gone to play. The moon 
and stars are shining Thomas studies and plays well. 

2. Point out the subjects and predicates in the preceding sentences. 
2. Point out the subject and the predicate in each of the following sentences: 

SUBJECT. MODELS. PREDICATE. 

Emma studies. 

His daughter Emma studies diligently. 

Emma studies. George rides. Virtue ennobles. Children play. 
Vice degrades. Trees grow. Snow falls. Ice melts. Winds blow. 
Caroline sings. Edith jumps. Eliza sews. Robert sleeps. Andrew 
skates. Kate runs. 

Emma studies diligently. George rides well. Virtue ennobles man. 
Children play in the yard. Vice degrades its victims. Trees grow in 
summer. Snow falls in winter. Ice melts in warm weather. Winds 
blow all the year. Caroline sings some beautiful songs. Edith jumped 
over the log. Eliza sews very industriously. 

Kate rides every Friday. Robert sleeps on the large sofa. Andrew 
skates with great ease. In summer trees grow. In warm weather ice 
melts. In winter snow falls. Diana is great. Great is Diana. The 
lofty trees of that forest are beautiful. Beautiful are the lofty trees of 
that forest. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. The knell of parting 
day the curfew tolls. The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea. O'er 
the lea slowly wind the lowing herds. Slowly o'er the lea wind the 
lowing herds. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. His 
weary way the plowman homeward plods. Homeward the plowman 
plods his weary way. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 147 

4. Form a predicate for each of the following subjects: 
Models. — Edward speaks. The streets are muddy. 

Edward The streets Fire The wind The 

grass .... Eain .... The ice ... . Snow .... The boys .... The 
river .... Horses .... Cows .... That naughty boy .... That 
little girl .... George .... 

5. Form a subject for each of the following predicates: 

Models. — Mary runs. Grass grows. 
.... runs grows swim has met with a misfor- 
tune was king of England created the world in six days. 

.... is at the head of his class roars learns grammar and 

arithmetic. 

LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT AND 
PREDICATE. 

Both the subject and the predicate may be either logical 
or grammatical. 

The Logical Subject denotes that of which something 
is affirmed, whether expressed by one word or by more ; as, 
"Winds blow;" "The cold winds blow;" "The cold winds of 
winter blow." 

The Logical Predicate denotes that which is affirmed, 
whether expressed by one word or by more; as, "The winds 
blow;" "The winds blow violently;" "The winds blow violently 
in winter." 

The Grammatical Subject is the principal noun of the 
logical subject. 

Thus, in this logical subject, the cold winds of winter, winds is the 
grammatical subject, being the noun which the other parts of the 
logical subject are employed to modify. 

The Grammatical Predicate is the principal verb of the 
logical predicate.* 

*The doctrine advanced in the former editions of this grammar that the 
grammatical predicate is always the verb alone was so entirely new that the 
statement gave a kind of grammatical shock to many persons. Such persons 

What does the logical subject denote? I What is the grammatical subject? 
The logical predicate ? | The grammatical predicate » 



148 SYNTAX. 

Thus, in this logical predicate, blow violently in winter, blow is the 
grammatical predicate, being the verb which the other parts of the 
logical predicate are employed to modify. 



thought that what had hitherto been taught in all the grammars about the verb 
be, that it is merely a copula uniting the subject and the predicate, must be true. 
Some years after the publication of this grammar Mr. Mulligan, in his philosoph- 
ical " Exposition of the Grammatical Structure of the English Language," main- 
tained that "the verb to be has, grammatically considered, no function that 
distinguishes it from other verbs," giving unanswerable arguments in support 
of his position. 

The common doctrine is thus presented in one of the grammars : " The copula 
is not an element; it is used merely to affirm the predicate of the subject 'Apples 
are ripe.' Apples is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed : rive is 
the predicate ; it is that which is affirmed of the subject; arc is the copula. ' I am 
in haste.' In haste is the grammatical predicate; am is the copula. " — Harvey's 
English Grammar, p. 124, etc. 

"This opinion," says Mr. Mulligan, "of a peculiar grammatical function per- 
taining to the verb expressive of existence, though universally admitted since the 
days of Aristotle, will, we think, appear on careful examination destitute of a 
solid foundation. And so long as it is maintained it stands, as it seems to us, a 
serious obstacle in the way of those who attempt a lucid and consistent analysis of 
language." In the proposition, " The steward is faithful," he says that in inn faith- 
ful is asserted, and not simply faithful, " as the logicians and grammarians gener- 
ally have inadvertently maintained." In a note he says: " The doctrine in regard 
to the verb to be presented above may seem novel to some of our readers, who have 
been taught to consider this verb as expressing the naked copula. We were taught 
to so consider it, and never doubted till recently the soundness of the ancient and 
common doctrine in reference to this subject. We had written a large part of a 
treatise on grammatical analysis in conformity with the common view of this mat- 
ter. In the progress of the work we encountered difficulties which we could not 
surmount, inconsistencies which we could not reconcile, whilst we adhered to the 
current opinion entertained of the verb to be. Though the distinction stated above 
and the innovation proposed in the manner of analyzing propositions may appear 
of small moment to a superficial observer, we are assured it will not so appear to 
intelligent and well-informed grammarians. Such will anticipate that very im- 
portant changes in the mode of conducting grammatical analysis will follow' from 
this new view of the so-called substantive verb. And they will readily trace these 
changes in other parts of this treatise. We appeal to the judgment of our readers, 
as we have heretofore appealed to the judgment of others in conversation without 
ever failing of obtaining a verdict in favor of our view of the matter when fully 
and plainly stated. We put to them the following simple question ; their answer 
will decide whether they hold to the old doctrine or auree with our views: In the 
proposition, 'The steward is faithful,' is it simply faithful that is asserted of the 
steward, oris it being faithful that is asserted of'him? if the latter, as we main- 
tain, and as all to whom we have presented the subject, after deliberation have 
admitted, then the verb is (grammatically considered) differs in no respect from other 
intransitive verbs. It may be modified by the same kind of complements as other 
neuter verbs, and by no kind of complement different from those which tome of 
them admit. The analysis of the propositions in which it is used as the assertive 
word presents, under this view, no peculiarity." 

Present to any company of intelligent persons the proposition, "Horses are 
animals," and ask them whether what is asserted of horses is animals or 
animals, and they will all say that it is being animals that is asserted. "Johi 
in Mobile." What is asserted of John? Living in Mobile. "John is in Mobile." 
What is here asserted of John ? Being in Mobile. The being is asserted in the second 
proposition as strongly as the living is asserted in the first. In grammatical char- 
acter there is no difference whatever between lives and is. In "He grout wise," 
what is asserted? Grouing wise. In " He looks wise " ? Looking wise' In •• He it 
wise " ? Being wise. In " She looks pale " ? Looking pale. In " She turns pale " ? 
Turning pale. In "She is pale"? Being pale. What is asserted in " Thev >//« 

happy," •* They live happy, rhey seem happy," "They are happy"? In "He 

stands there," " He lies there." " He walks there," " He is there " ? It is easy ; 
that the verb be expresses its meaning just as other verbs express their meaning. 
When Lady Macbeth says to her husband. "Look like the innocent flower, but be 
the serpent under it," is be a mere copula? When Hamlet says to his mother, 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 149 

If the logical subject consists of but one noun, the gram- 
matical subject is, of course, the same as the logical subject. 

Thus, in the proposition, " "Winds blow," winds is both the logical 
and the grammatical subject. 

If the logical predicate consists of but one verb, the gram- 
matical predicate is, of course, the same as the logical predicate. 

Thus, in the proposition, "Winds blow," blow is both the logical and 
the grammatical predicate. 

If the grammatical subject is not a noun, it is always some 
word, or combination of words, equivalent to a noun. 

Accordingly, the grammatical subject may be — 

1. A noun; as, "Slander is base;" "It is base." 

"Seems, madam! nay, it is; I know not seems,'' is the emphatic is nothing but a 
copula? 

"He stands there," "He stood there." A change in the form of the verb 
expresses a change in the time of standing there. " He is there," " He was there." 
A change in the form of the verb expresses a change in the time of being there. 
If the verb be is nothing but a copula, what is it that is past in " He was there " ? 
He does not denote something past, and there does not denote something past ; if 
was is nothing but a copula, then there is nothing represented as past. 

Even if it should be admitted that the verb be does not express being, this verb 
would form the grammatical predicate. "I am in haste." In what sense of the 
word can in -haste be regarded as the grammatical predicate? So far as the gram- 
matical relation between the subject and the predicate is concerned, I am is as 
complete as I run, I see, I jump, or I fly. lam contains the subject I and the verb 
am agreeing with I in number and person. This is complete so far as grammar is 
concerned. In haste has not the slightest grammatical connection with I, whatever 
may be regarded as the meaning of am. 

John Stuart Mill says, "That the employment of it [is] as a copula does not 
necessarily include the affirmation of existence appears from such a proposition 
as this, A centaur is a fiction of the poets ; where it can not possibly be implied 
that a centaur exists, since the proposition itself expressly asserts that the thing 
has no real existence." — Logic, p. 67. The proposition expressly asserts that the 
thing does exist as a, fiction, as " an object of thought." Mr. Mill asserts in effect that 
the verb be has two radically different uses; in one use asserting existence, in the 
other use asserting nothing at all, being a mere copula, and he says that •' the fog 
which arose from this narrow spot [the confounding of the two uses] diffused 
itself at an early period over the whole surface of metaphysics." But there is no 
case in which the verb be does not denote existence in reality or in thought, and 
the assertion that it is a mere copula is a blunder of the logicians which has been 
handed down from age to age. In the proposition, " There is a difference between 
right and wrong," the existence of a difference is asserted; in the proposition, 
" The difference between right and wrong is great," the existence of a difference 
is still asserted, the particular state in which the difference exists being: expressed 
by great. " There is a great difference between right and wrong ;" " The difference 
between right and wrong is great." According to Mill's idea, is in the first of 
these propositions asserts existence and in the second asserts nothing at all. In 
every proposition there must be something denoting that one thing is affirmed of 
another, and logicians have assumed that this something is always the verb is; 
but this something maybe mere juxtaposition, as in "Horses ruii." Juxtaposi- 
tion is not the verb is. • 

When is the grammatical subject the I When is the grammatical predicate the 
same as the logical? same as the logical? 

What besides a noun may be the grammatical subject? 



150 SYNTAX. 

2. An infinitive or a gerund; as, "To slander is base;" "Slandering 
is base." 

3. A proposition; as, "That men should slander is base;" "For men 
io slayider is base." 

When an infinitive or a proposition is the subject the pred- 
icate is often placed first and introduced by the pronoun it; 
as, "It is base to slander;" "It is base tliat men slwuld slander;" 
"It is base for men to slander" 

In such sentences it is not the real subject, being employed merely 
to introduce the sentence in a particular manner. In analysis it may 
be disregarded. Thus, in the proposition, " It is base to slander," the 
subject is to slander, and the predicate is is base. 

Remark.— This word may, however, be regarded in analysis by considering the 
infinitive or the proposition as in apposition with it; as, " It, to slander, is base ;" 
that is, " This thing, to slander, is base." 

The word there is often used to introduce a sentence when the 
predicate is placed before the subject; as, "There are five men here." 
In such cases there is not used as an adverb of place, and it forms 
really no part of either the subject or the predicate. "There are five 
men here" is the same proposition as "Five men are here;" "There is 
no one who does not know this" is the same proposition as "No one 
who does not know this is (exists)." 

Remarks. — 1. It is probable that this idiom had its origin in the use of (here as 
an adverb of place at the beginning of propositions ; as, "There is a man ;" " There 
comes a man;" "There lives a man." The adverb there in such constructions 
serves not only to denote in that place, but also to permit the introduction of the 
verb before the subject ; and by degrees we have come to use it often for the latter 
purpose alone, losing sight of the idea of place. 

2. A somewhat similar change has taken place in regard to that as employed in 
such sentences as " That men should slander is base," in which that serves merely 
to introduce the proposition. It is not employed as a conjunction, since it does 
not connect the proposition in which it stands to any thing else. Some regard it 
as a limiting adjective, asserting that the proposition in question is equivalent to 
" That thing, men should slander, is base." But after inserting thing we may 
repeat that; as, "That thing, that men should slander, is base." 

In such constructions that was originally a limiting adjective; and such sen- 
tences as, " I believe that to slander is base," " That men should slander is I 
were, according to the original meaning of the word, equivalent to "I believe 
that thing, to slander, is base," " That thing, men should slander, is base." The 
meaning of this word as thus used being such that it always pointed forward to 
the following proposition, it served us a kind of connective in such sentences as 
" I believe that to slander is base ;' this connective character causing the adjective 
character gradually to fie lost sight of. And in such sentences as "That men 
should slander is base," the close connection of that with the following proposi- 

How is the predicate often placed ? | How is there often used ? 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 151 

tion caused it to be regarded as incorporated with the proposition or as forming a 
mere introduction to it. But a word in changing its meaning may still retain 
some traces of the original meaning, as when in Fouque's "Undine" a water- 
spirit changes to a cascade the cascade still presents some features of the spirit. 

3. The use oi for in such sentences as "For men to slander is base;" "It is 
base for men to slander ;" " It is good for us to study," may be regarded as having 
resulted insensibly from its use as a preposition. Take, for instance, the sentence, 
" To study is good for us," equivalent to " That we should study is good for us," 
in which for is a preposition having us for its object. If we place the predicate 
before the subject, this sentence becomes ■' It is good for us to study," equivalent 
to " It is good for us that we should study," in which for is still a preposition. As 
us in this sentence denotes the persons who are to study, the word in the course of 
time came to be regarded as connected with the following to study instead of the 
preceding for, the sentence being then equivalent to "That we should study is 
good." In this case, for, having lost its object, would lose its character as a prepo- 
sition and become a mere introduction to the following proposition. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the logical and the grammatical subject in each of the following 
propositions : 

LOGICAL SUBJECT. MODELS. GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT. 

Kipe peaches. Peaches. 

A beautiful prospect. Prospect. 

The village preacher's modest mansion. Mansion. 

Ripe peaches are delicious. A beautiful prospect is spread before us. 
"Wise men avoid temptation. Great men often do wrong. No man is 
perfect. The village preacher's modest mansion rose. No humbler 
resting-place was nigh. 

The humble boon was soon obtained. The minstrel's voice began to 
fail. Pull slyly smiled the observant page. The cordial nectar of the 
bowl swelled his old veins. Eternal blessings crown my earliest friend. 
Round his dwelling guardian saints attend. 

To study strengthens the mind. It strengthens the mind to study. 
It is good for us to study. To run fatigues me. It fatigues me to run. 
It is necessary that we should study. It is necessary for us to study. 
To sneer is a common practice with him. It is a common practice with 
him to sneer. 

Six boys are here. There are six boys here. There is wisdom in 
his looks. A large number was present. There was a large number 
present. There were five loaves in the basket. There was dew on his 
thin clothes. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. 

2. Point out the logical and the grammatical predicate in each of the following 
propositions : 

LOGICAL PREDICATE. MODELS. GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE. 

Delivered four orations against Catiline. Delivered. 

"Was expelled from his kingdom. "Was expelled. 



152 SYNTAX. 

Cicero delivered four orations against Catiline. James was expelled 
from his kingdom. William governed England. John preached in 
the wilderness. The sentinel stars set their watch in the sky. James 
walks very fast. Washington is called the Father of his Country. The 
love of money is the root of all evil. Time is money. 

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 
Both the subject and the predicate may be either simple or 
compound. 

A Simple Subject is one which contains a single gram- 
matical subject, whether modified or unmodified; as, "Winds 
roar;" "The rough winds roar." 

A Semple Predicate is one which contains a single gram- 
matical predicate, whether modified or unmodified; as, "The 
winds roar;" "The winds roar around the house." 

A Compound Subject consists of two or more simple sub- 
jects having one predicate; as, "The winds and waves roar;" 
"The rough winds and stormy waves roar." 

A Compound Predicate consists of two or more simple 
predicates having one subject; as, "The winds roar and 
whistle;" "The winds roar around the house and whistle at 
the door." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the simple and the compound subjects in the following propositions \ 
Alexander and Caesar were great conquerors. Caesar was a Roman. 

Alexander was king of Macedon. Two and three make five. The 

moon and stars shone. Life is short. The longest life of man is short. 

William or Edward must go. 

Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon were historians. A storm arose. 

A great storm arose. A great storm of wind and rain arose. Virtue 

and vice are opposites. A multitude assembled. A multitude of men 

and women assembled. Six and three make nine. 

Pestilence and famine followed the war. A fatal pestilence and a 

terrible famine followed the war. The price of flour and meat rose 

rapidly. A large number of boys and girls appeared. A rolling stone 

gathers no moss. 

What is a simple subject? What is a compound Babied ! 

What is a simple predicate ? What is a compound predicate ? 



SENTENCES. 153 

2. Point out the simple and the compound predicates in the following propo- 
sitions : 

John desires books. John desires to learn. The devils believe and 
tremble. The bird chirps and sings. Ella longs for your return. He 
left his home and went to a foreign land. Loda comes in the roar of a 
thousand storms and scatters battle from his eyes. 

3. Form compound subjects for the following predicates : 

.... make seven desire to learn have gone to 

town shone went up to the temple are riding 

in the field fight visit us frequently have lost 

their books are precious metals are pleasant com- 
panions. 

4. Form compound predicates for the following subjects: 

Birds .... Flowers .... Horses .... Mary .... The 
soldier .... Babies .... The boy .... 

DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, IMPERATIVE, AND 
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

Sentences are either declarative, interrogative, imperative, or 
exclamatory. 

A Declarative Sentence is a sentence containing an 
assertion; as, "That boy learns;" "That boy does not learn." 

An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence containing a 
question; as, "Does that boy learn?" "Does not that boy 
learn?" 

An Imperative Sentence is a sentence containing a 
command, an entreaty, a permission, or an exhortation; as, 
"Saddle the horse;" "Save my child;" "Love virtue." 

In imperative sentences the subject when it is of the second person 
is generally omitted. The subject of each of the preceding sentences 
is you or thou understood. 

An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence containing an 
exclamation; as, "How that boy learns!" 

Remark.— Declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences may be uttered 
with great force; as, "John rides that wild horse!" "Does John ride that wild 
horse!" "The foe has come!" "Make haste!" "Rouse ye, Romans!" "Was it 

What is a declarative sentence ? I What is an imperative sentence ? 

What is an interrogative sentence ? | What is an exclamatory sentence ? 



154 SYNTAX. 

not strange !" But this force does not convert such sentences to exclamatory sen- 
tences. Exclamatory sentences differ in form from the other kinds ; as, " What a 
wild horse he rides!" 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the declarative, the interrogative, the imperative, and the exclama- 
tory sentences in the following : 

Thomas went to New Albany. Did Thomas go to New Albany? 
Where does Edward reside? He resides in Jefferson ville. How silly 
that fellow is ! Have you a knife? Go to bed. Go. Depart from evil. 
What a sharp knife you have! How did you make that mistake? Go 
not to Wittenberg. Thou comest. Dost thou come? Comest thou? 
Come you in peace here? 

How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard? Horror and doubt distract 
his troubled thoughts. He did not go to Wittenberg. Deliver us from 
evil. Lead us not into temptation. Learn to labor and to wait How 
often have I blessed the coming day ! What a noble life he has led ! 
Be smooth, ye rocks ; ye rapid floods, give way. 

Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? 

Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of Death? 

Be not like dumb driven cattle; 
Be a hero in the strife. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear; 

Full many flower is born to blush unseen 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

Modifications. 
A word or a collection of words is said to modify a word 
when it serves to show the extent of the application of that 
word; as, "John is good." 

Here the verb is, which asserts being generally, is modified by the 
adjective good, which limits the being to a certain state. 
A noun may be modified — 

1. By a noun in apposition ; as, "John the Baptist;" "I, the governor" 

2. By a noun in the possessive case ; as, "Milton's poems." 

W r hen is a word or a collection of words I What is the first way in which a noun 
said to modify a word ? may be modified ? The second ? 



SENTENCES. 



155 



3. By an adjunct; as, "Devotion to study;" "Friendship for me." 

4. By an adjective or a participle; as, "Envious time;" "The stars;" 
"Error wounded;" "A mistake concerning this matter." 

5. By an infinitive; as, "A desire to learn." 

6. By a proposition; as, "The boy who studies." 
A verb may be modified — 

1. By a noun in the nominative case ; as, " It is he." 

Remark. — This noun is the " predicate - nominative. " When the infinitive 
mood has a subject the modifying noun is in the objective case. (See Rule II.) 

2. By a noun in the objective case; as, "John struck Alfred;" 
" I saw them." 

3. By a predicate-adjective, or adjective in the predicate referring 
to the subject; as, "Ophelia is lovely;" "Aristides was called just" 

4. By an adjunct; as, "William spoke to Thomas" 

5. By an adverb; as, "Alice learns rapidly" 

6. By an infinitive; as, "Cora wishes to learn." 

7. By a proposition; as, "I wish that you should learn;" "I wish 
you to learn." 

Remarks. — 1. It is only intransitive verbs and verbs in the passive voice that 
may be modified in the first and the third way, and only transitive verbs in the 
active voice that may be modified in the second way. 

2. Infinitives, participles, and gerunds are modified like other parts of the 
verb; as, "To be called John;" "Being called John;" "To strike Alfred;" 
"Striking Alfred." 

3. Gerunds, besides being modified like verbs, may be modified by nouns in 
the possessive case ; as, "His being called John." 

An adjective may be modified — 

1. By an adjunct; as, "Desirous of justice." 

2. By an adverb; as, "Very desirous." 

3. By an infinitive; as, "Desirous to go." 

4. By a proposition ; as, " Desirous that you should go" 
An adverb may be modified — 

1. By another adverb; as, "More openly." 

2. By an adjunct; as, "Agreeably to nature." 
An adjunct may be modified — 

By an adverb: as, "Just at that time;" "Soon after dinner." 



What is the third way in which a noun 
may be modified ? The fourth ? The 
fifth? The sixth? 

What is the first way in which a verb 
mav be modified ? The second ? The 
third? The fourth? The fifth? The 
sixth? The seventh? 



What is the first way in which an adjec- 
tive mav be modified ? The second ? 
The third ? The fourth ? 

What is the first way in which an adverb 
may be modified? The second ? 

How may an adjunct be modified? 



156 SYNTAX. 

Remarks.— 1. A word may be modified in several ways at the same time; as, 
"Annie earnestly desires to karn." 

2. A word modifying another may itself be modified; as, "Herodotus, the 
father of history." Here father, which modifies Herodotus, is modified by the 
adjunct of history and the adjective tlie. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following nouns are modified and by what : 

Paul the apostle. Nero the tyrant. Cicero the orator. Xenophon 
the historian. Solomon, the son of David. Arnold, the base traitor. 
Herodotus, the father of history. I John. "VVe Christians. Mecca, a 
city of Arabia. Chaucer, the father of English poetry. 

John's hat. Shakespeare's works. "Wisdom's ways. Laura's heart. 
The prisoner's conduct. A mother's love. 

Obedience to parents. Duty to God. Love of virtue. Vulgarity 
in conversation. Beauty of form. Days of absence. Slaves to sin. 
Men of pure heart. Authors of great respectability. Times of great 
affliction. Men of one idea. 

Envious men. Beautiful birds. Instructive books. These lovely 
scenes. The afflicted nation. Short pleasure. Long pain. The wise 
Nestor. That long table. The sun rising. The stars shining. The 
trees growing. A report touching. 

A wish to go. A determination to depart. A time to dance. The 
disposition to waver. A desire to excel. A resolution to study. 

The girl who reads. The woman who deliberates. The man who 
has known better days. The city that has been built. The fact that he 
wrote the letter. The belief that the army is demoralized. A wish that 
you would come. I who command you. He who has helped them. 

2. Tell which of the following verbs are modified and by what : 

She is a queen. He is an orator. He is called James. You will be 
governor. He is considered a poet. He was chosen commander. It is 
a monument. I have been appointed inspector. I believe it to be him. 
They are villains. 

God governs the world. Cyrus defeated Crcesus. I have chosen 
him. Virtue bestows tranquility. Labor conquers all things. Him I 
know. Me you did not see. 

He is proud. She is vain. Elizabeth is happy. Edward has been 
tardy. That farmer is industrious. You will become learned. I am 
sad. Alexander is called great. 

Bonaparte marched into Russia. Pompey was defeated by 
He came from Paducah. She conquers by kindness. Will you walk 



SENTENCES. 157 

into my parlor? You will succeed by perseverance. He resides in 
Alabama. 

The evening fled swiftly. The grass grows rapidly. Where is she? 
She is here. He studies diligently. How does he study? The judge 
will decide justly. You will see him then. When did you see him? 
Come on. 

He promises to remain. William has determined to go. He will be 
compelled to labor. He strives to excel. He threatened to shoot. He 
was commanded to fire. They have been ordered to retreat. 

I wish that he may be chosen. I pray that you may succeed. I 
confess that I have failed. I believe that he has gone. He stated that 
Theodore was deceived. I believe Jane to be mistaken. 

3. Tell which of the following adjectives are modified and by what : 

Desirous of praise. Mighty in arms. Confident of success. Good 
for nothing. Superior to fear. Trustworthy in nothing. Obstinate in 
trifles. Firm in opinion. 

Very good. Extremely bad. Exceedingly beautiful. Thoroughly 
vicious. Entirely unsuspicious. Supremely happy. Too suspicious. 
Sufficiently miserable. Cunning enough. 

Ready to recite. Wonderful to be told. Eager to advance. Easy 
to accomplish. Anxious to help. Disposed to complain. 

Conscious, that he was in fault. Desirous that he should succeed. 
Confident that I should win. Impatient for me to come. 

4. Tell which of the following adverbs are modified and by what: 
Very highly esteemed. Most ardently devoted to study. Much 

more intelligent. More happily situated. Most wisely selected. Very 

recently. 

Agreeably to instructions. He studies best of all the pupils. Where 

in the world. Consistently with his obligations. Unfortunately for 

himself. Gloriously for them. Somewhere in the city. 

5. Show how the following adjuncts are modified : 
Far beyond Mobile. Perfectly at home. Totally at a loss. Long 
before noon. Precisely at that moment. 

6. Modify the following nouns as indicated : 
1. By nouns in apposition. — John [the Baptist]. Cromwell. Henry 
Clay. Hume [the historian]. Frankfort [the capital]. Longfellow. 
Andrew Jackson. 



158 SYNTAX. 

2. By nouns in the possessive case. — [Andrew's] hat Book. Desk. 
Umbrella. Parasol. Cat. Dog. Shoe. Chair. Hand. Pen. 

3. By adjuncts. — Desire [for improvement]. Attention. Aversion. 
Study [of history]. Hatred. Love. Roof. Cover. Foundation. 

4. By adjectives or participles. — [Pleasant] day. Weather. Light. 
Boy. Character. Girl. Disposition. Horse. Cow. Mule. House. 

5. By infinitives. — Disposition [to quarrel]. Desire. Wish. Time. 
Motive [to work]. Liability [to err]. Propensity. Tendency. Call. 
Opportunity. Inability. 

6. By propositions. — The man [who spoke]. A statement [that has 
been proved]. The town [that is clean]. The fact. An assertion. A 
wish. The truth. The street. 

7. Modify the following verbs as indicated : 

1. By predicate-nominatives. — He is called [John]. To be called [a 
traitor]. Being called. I have been appointed. He is. They are. 
To be. He has been elected. 

2. By nouns in the objective case. — He strikes [his friend]. To strike. 
To have [money]. They injure. He has. He has told. They will 
throw. Throwing. To throw. 

3. By predicate-adjectives. — She is [industrious]. They have been. 
They seem. We are. He has been called. To be called. To appear. 
To be. Being. She appears. Appearing. 

4. By adjuncts. — Caesar marched [to Rome]. He has gone. Going. 
To go. He will run. I will walk. Braddock was defeated [by the 
Indians]. The city was destroyed. The boy was drowned. The child 
was beaten. The comet was seen. 

5. By adverbs. — She studies [well]. They labor. We strive. He 
begs [continually]. To beg. It flies. Plying. He runs. She walks. 
They whisper. She smiles. 

6. By infinitives. — I wish [to see him]. She seems. To seem. He 
hopes. They strive. Striving. You are expected. We try. To try. 
He ought. She likes. 

7. By propositions. — I hope [that we shall succeed]. She supposes. 
We know. Knowing. I thought. To think. She says. You forget 
[to whom you are speaking]. Remember. I heard. He has asserted. 
They believe. You imagine. 

8. Modify the following adjectives as indicated : 
1. By adjuncts. — Good. Rich. Suitable. Worthy. Displeasing. 
Happy. Next. Superior. Inferior. Opposite. 



SENTENCES. 159 

2. By adverbs. — Sprightly. Bad. Worse. Bough. Conspicuous. 
Disastrous. Wild. Swift. Consistent. 

3. By infinitives. — Beady [to go]. Solicitous. Anxious. Willing. 
Sjure. Wonderful. Easy. Hard. Difficult. 

4. By propositions. — Conscious [that he was in fault]. Unconscious. 
Confident. Sure. Ignorant. Mindful. 

9. Modify the following adverbs as indicated : 

1. By adverbs. — [Very] wisely. Better. Discreetly. Fast. Now. 
Sooner. Justly. 

2. By adjuncts. — Consistently [with truth]. Agreeably. Differently. 
Conformably. 

10. Modify the following adjuncts by adverbs : 
From home. After dinner. In time. 

SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

A Simple Sentence is a sentence consisting of one propo- 
sition; as, "Time and tide wait for no man." 

A Complex Sentence is a sentence in which a proposition 
is employed as a noun, an adjective, an adjunct, or an adverb, 
to modify some part of the subject or of the predicate of an- 
other proposition; as, "I know who studies;" "The boy who 
studies will learn;" "I am surprised tliat you have come-" "I 
shall see you when you come." 

In the first sentence the proposition who studies performs the office 
of a noun, being the object of the transitive verb know ; in the second 
sentence who studies performs the office of an adjective, being equiva- 
lent to studious; in the third sentence that you have come performs the 
office of an adjunct, being equivalent to the adjunct at your coming ; in 
the fourth sentence when you come performs the office of an adverb, 
denoting the time. 

Propositions employed as nouns, adjectives, adjuncts, or 
adverbs (noun -propositions, adjective -propositions, adjunct- 
propositions, adverb -propositions) have the general name of 
subordinate propositions; while those containing the modified 
words are called principal propositions. 

What is a simple sentence ? What are subordinate propositions ? 

What is a complex sentence ? What are principal propositions ? 



160 SYNTAX. 

The same word may be modified by two or more propositions ; as, 
" I know who studies and ivho is idle." 

A subordinate proposition may have some part of it modified by 
another proposition; as, "I am surprised that you have come when the 

season is so far advanced." 

A Compound Sentence is a sentence formed of two or 
more propositions whether simple or complex, connected by 
coordinative conjunctions; as, "Art is long, and time is fleet- 
ing;" "The wicked flee when no man pursueth; but the 
righteous are as bold as a lion." 

Remark. — To form a compound sentence there must be a conjunction ex- 
pressed or clearly implied ; mere connection of thought is not sufficient. The 
two following lines are closely connected in thought, but not in syntax: 
"Who lives to nature rarely can be poor; 
Who lives to fancy never can be rich." 

Noun-propositions. 
A proposition may perform the office of a noun — 

1. As subject of a verb; as, "That he will succeed is evident;" "How 
he succeeded is a mystery." • 

2. As object of a transitive verb ; as, " I believe that he will suc- 
ceed;" " I do not know how he succeeded;" " I believe him to be honest;" 
"I know who wrote that letter;" "I know why he wrote the letter;" 
" Tell me whether you will go or stay;" " He said, '/ will go.' " 

3. As predicate-nominative; as, "The general belief is that he will 
succeed." 

4. As noun in apposition; as, "Kemember the old saying, 'Know 
thyself;' " " The story ran that he could gage." 

5. As object of a preposition; as, " Much will depend on who the com- 
missioners are;" "One word is too often profaned for me to profane it;" 
"There has been a controversy about hoio it was done;" " I have formed 
no opinion as (in regard) to who is guilty." 

6. As noun in the nominative absolute; as, "That he is of age being 
known." 

ADJECTIVE-PROPOSITIONS. 

A proposition may perform the office of an adjective — 

1. When it contains a relative pronoun; as, "The girl who is always 
laughing shows want of sense;" "That undiscovered country from 

What is a compound sentence? I What is the fifth way? 

What is the first way in which a proposi- What is the first way in which a pr"i«>- 

tion may perform the office of a noun ? sition may perform the office of an ad- 

The second ? The third ? The fourth ? | jective *> 



SENTENCES. 161 

whose bourn no traveler returns;" "I have formed no opinion in regard 
to what you assert;" "In the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt 
surely die." 

Remarks. — 1. The word modified by the relative proposition what you assert 
is thing understood. 

2. In the proposition that thou eatest thereof, modifying day, that (in which) is a 
relative pronoun and the object of a preposition understood.* This construction 
is not uncommon. "What is the reason that (for which) you use me thus?"— 
Shakespeare. " From the day that (on which) the school was given up." — Quarterly 
Review. " The instant that (at which) he quitted the use or occupation of it another 
might seize it." — Blackstone. " Each stepping where his comrade stood the instant 
that (at which) he fell."— Scott. " She died the hour that (in which) I was born."— 
Coleridge. "At the same time that (at which) it occasioned uncertainty in the 
sense."— Hume. « About the time that (at w hi C h) the declining sun 

Shall his broad orbit o'er yon hills suspend 

Expect us to return." — Home. 
"About the time that (at which) the estafette made his appearance."— Irving. 
"The moment that (at which) his face I see." — Coleridge. "After the time that 
(at which) my uncle Toby and Trim decamped."— Sterne. 

3. The relative is sometimes understood ; as, " This is the man [whom] we met." 

4. There is a construction in which the antecedent is placed after a proposition 
logically connected with the relative ; as, " It is to this place that the gulls resort." 
This is not equivalent to 4> That the gulls resort is to this place " [see p. 196], but to 
"It is this place that the gulls resort to;" "It is this place to which the gulls 
resort; ; ' " This [place] is the place to which the gulls resort." This construction, 
though it is believed not before noticed by any English grammarian, is quite 
common. It is somewhat similar to one form of what Greek grammarians call 
attraction; the antecedent, instead of being put in the nominative case, is attracted 
to the case of the relative. 

This form is irregular and in analysis must be changed. Thus, " It (the place) 
to which the gulls resort is this place." 

Some additional examples are here given : " It is from me that he has fled." 
(It is I that he has fled from ; It [the person] that he has fled from is I.) " It was 
by Caesar that he was defeated." " It is in these formidable mansions that myriads 
of sea-fowl are forever seen sporting."— Goldsmith. " It was not to passive princi- 
ples in our ancestors that we owe the honor of appearing before a sovereign." — 
Burke. "It was by him that money was coined." — Macaulay. "It is from the 
terror of these spectres that our people have fled." — Beckford. This may be equiv- 
alent either to " That our people have fled is from (caused by) the terror of these 
spectres," or to "It is the terror of these spectres from which our people have 
fled." From this the difference in meaning between the two constructions may 
be seen. 

"It is to this last new feature of the game-laws to which we intend to confine 
our notice." — Sydney Smith. Here the writer confounds two different construc- 
tions. He ends the sentence as if he had not used to in the first part. 

5. The antecedent is sometimes attracted from its own proposition to that of 
the relative, the relative being joined with it as an adjective ; as, " He marched 
with what forces he had ;" that is, " He marched with the forces which he had." 
To the latter form such sentences must be changed in analysis. 

This is similar to what some Greek grammarians call incorporation, the ante- 
cedent being in a manner incorporated with the relative. 

*Or it mav be regarded as an adverb, like whereon, wherein, etc. 
14 



162 SYNTAX. 

2. "When it contains an adverb equivalent to an adjunct formed with 
a relative pronoun; as, "She visited the place where (in which) she was 
once so happy;" " Tell me the reason why (for which) thou wilt marry;" 
" You take my life when you do take the means whereby (by which) 
I live." 

Adjunct- propositions. 

A proposition may perform the office of an adjunct — 

1. When it denotes the cause or reason ; as, " We should love him 
because (by the cause, for the reason) he first loved us;" "Since (for the 
reason) he first loved us, we should love him;" "As (for the reason) you 
ask for mercy, you should show mercy." 

2. When it denotes the purpose, object, or result; as, "I eat that 
(for that) J may live;" "He labors in order [to] that he may obtain 
bread;" "I eat lest (for fear) I may die;" "He speaks loud [for] that 
every one may hear him." 

3. When it expresses a condition or supposition; as, "I will go, if 
(on the condition) you will go with me;"* "If you will go with me, I 
will go;" "He will go unless [without] he should change his mind;" 
"If (on the supposition) he were alive, he would be a rich man ;" " He 
will be elected, whether (on either supposition) you vote for him or 
[you do] not [vote for him]." 

4. When it expresses a concession or admission; as, "Although this 
is a strange story, I believe him;" "I expect to succeed, though (with 
the concession) the difficulties are great." 

6. When it is the complement of the idea expressed by some one 
of certain nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which take adjuncts; as, "This 
furnishes evidence [of] that you are guilty (of your guilt);" "He has 
no assurance [of] that you will come (of your coming);" "He is con- 
scious [of] that he has done wrong (of having done wrong);" "She was 
ignorant [of] that he was defeated (of his defeat);" "The general is 
ashamed [of] that he acted so hastily (of having acted so hastily);" 
"I am anxious [for] that he should succeed (for his success);" "He is 
grateful [for] that he has been relieved;" "I warn you [of] that you 
will not have another opportunity;" "I will wager a dinner [on] that 
Mary will venture there now;" "Fret not thyself [for] that a poor 
villager inspires my strains." Your friend is desirous [of] that you 
should succeed. 

• That is, given you will go with me. 



What is the second way ? 

What is the first way in which a propo- 
sition may perform the office of an 
adjunct? 



What is the second wav? 
The fourth? The fifth? 



SENTENCES. 163 

Adverb-propositions. 
A proposition may perform the office of an adverb — 

1. When it denotes time; as, "The sun was rising when (at the time 
at which) I commenced my journey ;" " I will stay while you are gone;" 
"He trembled as (at the time at which) he spoke;" "I have not seen 
him since he arrived." 

2. When it denotes place ; as, " Stay where (in the place in which) 
J have placed you;" "She is happy wherever (in every place in which) 
she is." 

3. When it denotes manner; as, "He died as (in the manner in 
which) he had lived;" "He thought as a sage [thinks]." 

4. When it denotes degree ; as, " She is as (in the same degree) good 
as (in which) he is;" "That is so (in that degree) disagreeable that* 
(in which) / can not endure it;" " The ground is so (in that degree) di y 
that (in which) the grass is withered ;" "He is as studious as his brother 
[is studious];" "He is more studious than (to a degree above that in 
which) his brother [is studious]." 

Remark. — It will be observed that those propositions which we have, for the 
sake of convenience, called adverb - propositions really consist of adjuncts and 
adjective-propositions. Thus, in the sentence, " The sun was rising when I com- 
menced my journey.'' when is equivalent to at the time at which, the noun time 
being modified by the adjective - proposition, at which I commenced my journey. 
Such propositions might be called adjunct-adjective propositions. 

Elliptical Propositions. 
Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words belonging 
to the grammatical construction but not necessary for convey- 
ing the idea. 

EXAMPLES OF ELLIPSIS. 

Deliver [thou] us from evil. Go [you] in peace. I will wait for 
you at Mr. Smith's [house], I will take this book, and you may take 
that [book]. He took the shortest [way], not the longest way. Let 
each [person] take his own course. Behold the ghastly band, each 
[having] a torch in his hand. Thee, [being] then a boy, within my 
arms I laid. When Adam thus [spoke] to Eve. This comes after 
that, instead of [coming] before it. He has not yet decided, except 
[deciding] in one case (deciding in one case being excepted). 



What is the first way in which a propo- 1 What is the second way ? The third ? 
sition may perform the office of an The fourth ? 
adverb? | What is an ellipsis? 



164 SYNTAX. 

What [would happen] if the foot aspired to be the head ? He looks 
as [he would look] if he were not well. If [it is] possible, I will assist 
you. The next time [at which] I see you. He will have his own way, 
[be it] right or wrong. [Be thou] whatever thou art, I do not fear 
thee.* [Be he] however cunning he may be, he can not escape. Do 
[she] what she will, she is applauded. [Do she] whatever she does, she 
is applauded. 

The cathedral [which is] there was built several hundred years ago. 
The rabbit [which was] in the tree was caught. As [it happens] when 
a bird each fond endearment tries. Why [should we] grieve that time 
flies? Will you go or [will you] not [go]? What [does it matter] 
though the spicy breezes blow soft o'er Ceylon's isle? Thy tragic muse 
gives smiles, thy comic [muse gives] sleep. He can not succeed; he 
will, however [this may be],t try. [Let it have been] however it was, 
it did him no good. Go [he] who will [go], I will stay. 

I shall consider his censures so far only as [it, or the matter,] con- 
cerns my friend's conduct. With a few of the best English writers he 
was intimate, particularly [he was intimate] with Shakespeare and 
Milton. There might be too much pride in the son, as [there was too 
much pride] in the father. A sickness long as well as [it was] severe 
had enfeebled him. He went as far as Richmond [is far]. John went 
as well (truly) as James [went]. [Being] avaricious as he is, that man 
will never give money for this purpose. I have nothing to say as (in 
regard) to that matter. 

But [things being] even so, he could not refrain. He has not done 
it as [things are] yet. By the bye [I will remark], Miss More is an 
author of considerable merit. [To say all] in a word, he must give up 
all his aims in life for it. Statesmen, as [they are] distinguished from 
mere politicians, are entitled to great respect. I assume it [to be] as a 
fact [is]. You wish to escape; I will not permit you though [this is so]. 
All this while the soil and pasture of the earth remained still in common 
as [they had been] before, except perhaps [they did not remain in com- 
mon] in the neighborhood of towns. 

He heaped abuse upon her, and [he did] that too when she had no 
protector. [It is] not that all are equally susceptible. She has more 
reason to value herself upon the conquest of an old man who has never 
seen her than [she has much reason to value herself upon the conquest] 
of any young man who has [seen her]. So far [ought we to be] from 
desponding, we ought to be sanguine. But [let us come] to the point. 

*Chaucer's landlord, after asking the priest whether lie was a "vieary" or a 
"personne," goes on to say, "Be what thou be, ne breke thou not our play"= 
" Be thou whatever thou art, break not our play." 

f Be this, or let this be however it may be. 



SENTENCES. 165 

He will, [there is] no doubt, answer you. After these reflections on 
modesty as [it is]* a virtue I must observe that there is a vicious 
modesty. His reputation as [he is] an author is very great. He did 
not [do] so much as [to] weep [is much]. 

This should not create a prejudice against the Jews as [they are] 
such. He can not [do any thing] but (be out) [to] conquer. You can 
[not] but [to] try.t [Being the] sluggard that he is, he wastes his days 
in sleep. I tell thee what [it is], corporal, I could tear her. The year 
before he had so used the matter that [with] what [he had effected] by 
force, [with] what [he had effected] by policy, he had taken thirty 
small castles.J An aptitude for painting trees and cattle, or gondolas 
and buildings, or what [I mention] not (other things which I do not 
enumerate). 

He is as tall as James [is tall]. He is taller than James [is tall]. 
He is as wise as [he is] learned. He is more wise than [he is] learned. 
The sun is larger than the earth [is large]. He does nothing who 
endeavors to do more than [that which] is allowed to humanity [is 
much]. My punishment is greater than [that which] I can bear [is 
great]. Pears are better than apples [are good]. I have more than 
[that which] I know what to do with [is much].£ You are more 
unhappy than [you would be unhappy] if you had lost your eyes. In 

* Steele expresses the words in brackets, "After these reflections on modesty 
as it is a virtue," etc. 

fThat is, You can not do any thing be out to try. It is by the omission of not 
that but has come to be used in the sense of the adverb only. " He hath not grieved 
me but in part."— English Bible. " You can not but try " is better than " You can 
but try." (See Webster's Dictionary, s. v. Can.) 

t "In part; partly;— with a following preposition, especially with, and with 
repetition."— Webster's Dictionary. But what is not always repeated; thus, "In 
short, what with pride, prejudice, and knavery, poor Peter was grown distracted."— 
Swift. " What with gas and new police, steam and one cause or other, they have 
become what one might call slow explosions." — Hood. " What with the wheels of 
a cart, the tramp of a horse, the voice of a man, the tearing in and out of an ex- 
cited dog, and the surprising and mysterious appearance of a baby." — Dickens. 
What in this idiom seems to refer merely to the effect produced by means of what 
the following nouns denote. When ivith is used it is used like by, to denote the 
instrument, means, cause. 

§ " He does nothing who endeavors to do more than [what] is allowed to 
humanity;" " My punishment is greater than [what] I can bear."— B rown's Gram- 
mar of Grammars. "Pears are better than apples [are]." — KerVs Treatise on the 
English Language. It is not sufficient to supply merely the verb. When we say, 
" Pears are as good as apples," or " Pears are better than apples," we make a com- 
parison, not between the goodness of the pears and the existence of the apples, but 
between the goodness of the pears and the goodness of the apples, and the adjective 
good is of course implied after as or than, " He would sooner go than [he would 
soon] stay." " He would rather go [than he would rathe] stay." (See page 137.) 
As rathe is almost obsolete, the equivalent soon may be put in its place. " He seeks 
other things than these." As the comparative other has no positive, we must in 
analysis employ some equivalent word. If these refers to something bad. low, etc.. 
other is equivalent to better, higher, etc. ; if these refers to things good, high, etc., 
other is equivalent to worse, lower, etc: "He seeks things higher than these are 
high." 



166 



SYNTAX. 



that battle he did not lose more than fifty men (more men than fifty- 
fare many]). That is more easily imagined than [it is easily] described. 
I saw a being of [dignity] greater than human dignity [is great]. 

Substitutes and Transformations. 

A noun and a participle (nominative absolute) may be employed 
instead of a subordinate proposition; as, "Virtue being lost, all is lost"= 
" "When virtue is lost all is lost." 

A gerund may take the place of a finite verb, the subject of the 
finite verb being put in the possessive case before the gerund; as, 
"I am not sure of his having paid the debt" = "I am not sure that 
he has paid the debt." 

Instead of the nominative with a finite verb the objective with an 
infinitive may sometimes be used; as, "I believe him to be honest "= 
"I believe that he is honest." "I heard him speak"=" I heard him as 
he spoke." (For another view of "I heard him speak " see p. 220.) 

The action, instead of being asserted, is sometimes merely named, 
an infinitive being employed for a finite verb; as, "To confess the 
truth, I was in fault "=" That I may confess the truth, [I must say] 
I was in fault;" "He knows when to be silent "=" He knows when he 
should be silent;" "This is a subject on which to show your powers "= 
"This is a subject on which you may show your powers;" "The diffi- 
culties were so great as to deter him "=." The difficulties were so great 
that they deterred him;" "I requested him to attend , '="I requested 
him that he would attend;" "He was commanded to go"="'ELe was 
commanded that he should go." 

Remark.— The preceding passages are not elliptical ; but the verb is employed 
in an unlimited form, like the Latin "historical infinitive" occurring in such 
passages as hostes tela conjicere, the enemy threw (to throw) their javelins. The 
Latin infinitive in such passages does not, as some say depend on ca'pit or cotperunt 
understood ; but the verb is employed in its unlimited form, the context being 
considered sufficient to point out the limitations. 

The imperative mood is often employed to express conditions, sup- 
positions, etc.; as, "Let it be ever so humble, there is no place like 
home;" "Be it ever so humble, there is no place like home "=" Though 
it may be ever so humble, there is no place like home." "There is no 
place like home, [be it] however humble it may be." 
"Let sage or cynic prattle as he will, 
These hours, and these alone, repay life's years of ill." — Byron. 



What may be employed in the sense of 
a subordinate proposition? 

What is said of the use of the gerund ? 

What may be used instead of the nomi- 
native with a finite verb? 



asserted ? 

How is the imperative mood often em- 
ployed ? 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 



167 



The subject is sometimes placed before a verb to which it does not 
logically belong, what is declared of the object being in reality expressed 
by the infinitive following; as, "The man is said to be honest"="It is 
said that the man is honest." 

Remark. — Here it is not the man that is said; what is said is that the man is 
honest "The boy is believed to have stolen it" does not mean that the boy is 
believed, but that the boy has stolen it is believed. 

Some part of the verb do is sometimes omitted before than, and 
the infinitive following changed in form and employed instead of the 
omitted part of do ; as, " He has more than atoned for his fault "=" He 
has done more than [to] atone for his fault [is much]." Here a com- 
parison is made between what he has done and what to atone for his 
fault amounts to, and the infinitive atone is transformed to a participle, 
which is employed instead of the omitted participle done. "He more 
than atones for his fault "=" He does more than atone for his fault." 

A noun in the objective case after the adverb like and some other 
words is sometimes equivalent to a proposition; as, "He walks like a 
duck"="TIe walks as a duck walks." 

" This is the forest primeval ; but where are the hearts that beneath it 

Leaped like the roe when he hears in the woodland the voice of the 
huntsman? " — Longfellow. 
When in this passage is a conjunctive adverb, and it should modify two 
verbs. Leaped is one of the verbs; the other is leaps, implied in like 
the roe=as the roe leaps. 

An interjection is sometimes employed in the sense of a whole 
proposition; as, "O that those lips had language!" — Cowper. (See 
p. 142, Rem. 4.) 

For such transformed propositions as "It is to this place that gulls 
resort" (attraction), see p. 161, Rem. 4. 

For such transformed propositions as "He marched with what 
forces he had" (incorporation), see p. 161, Rem. 5. 

EXEECISES IN ANALYSIS. 

Directions.— In analyzing a passage take, without regard to the punctuation, 
as much as makes complete sense. This is a complete sentence (unless something 
is added to form a compound sentence). 

Point out the logical subject and the logical predicate. 

Point out the grammatical subject; then its modifiers, if it is modified. 

If the words which modify the grammatical subject are themselves modified, 
point out the modifiers ; then the modifiers of those modifiers, etc. 



Explain the construction in "The man 

is said to be honest." 
In "He has more than atoned for his 

fault." 



Explain the construction in "He walks 

like a duck." 
Explain the construction in "O that 

those lips had language." 



168 SYNTAX. 

Point out the grammatical predicate ; then its modifiers, if it is modified. 

If the words which modify the grammatical predicate are themselves modi- 
fied, point out the modifiers ; then the modifiers of those modifiers, etc. 

Analyze the subordinate propositions of the logical subject and the logical 
predicate. 

Simple Sentences. 

1. Analyze the following sentences: 
"A night of storm followed a day of sunshine." 

Logical subject, a night of storm; logical predicate, followed a day 
of sunshine. 

Grammatical subject, night, modified by the adjective a and the 
adjunct of storm. 

Grammatical predicate, followed, modified by the objective day, day 
being modified by the adjective a and the adjunct of sunshine, 

"Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight." 

Logical subject, the glimmering landscape; logical predicate, noio 
fades on the sight. 

Grammatical subject, landscape, modified by the adjectives the and 
glimmering* 

Grammatical predicate, fades, modified by the adverb 7iow and the 
adjunct on the sight, sight being modified by the adjective the. 

The following arrangement presents to the eye the relation of the words to 
each other. A perpendicular line shows that the word before it is modified by 
what immediately follows it. The grammatical subject and grammatical predi- 
cate are distinguished by lines drawn under them. 

I a I the 

of storm Landscape | glimmegin8 

foIlowed | d ^ | of sunshine. ^££ | onThe sight. 

"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." 

Logical subject, the curfew; logical predicate, tolls the knell of 
parting day. 

Grammatical subject, curfew, modified by the adjective the. 

Grammatical predicate, tolls, modified by the adjective knell; k/ull 
is modified by the adjective the and the adjunct of parting day. 

• The adjective the really modifies the complex expression glimmering landscape : 
but it is not necessary to make the young pupil attend to such distinctions. The 
relation of the words may be represented in a diagram thus, landncapc I piimmerinc i the; 
which shows that landscape is first modified by glimmering, and then glimmering 
landscape is modified by the. "All bad books are pernicious." Books | bad | all. 



EXEECISES IN ANALYSIS. 169 

"A contented mind is a continual feast." 
Logical subject, a contented mind; logical predicate, is a continual 

feast. t 

Grammatical subject, mind, modified by the adjectives a and 

contented. 

Grammatical predicate is, modified by the predicate -nominative 

feast; feast is modified by the adjectives a and i 



Curfew I the 

I the 



tolls I knell 



of parting day. 



"That hoy is intelligent and modest." 
Logical subject, that boy; logical predicate, is intelligent and modest. 
Grammatical subject, boy, modified by the adjective that. 
Grammatical predicate, is, modified by the predicate-adjectives intel- 
ligent and modest. 

"Aristides was called just by the Athenians." 
Logical subject, Aristides; logical predicate, was called just by the 

Athenians. 

Grammatical subject, Aristides; grammatical predicate, was called, 

modified by the predicate-adjective just and the adjunct by the Athenians. 

Boy | that Aristides 

; [-intelligent was called I J ust 

M and was_cailed | fe ^ Athenians> 

I modest. 

"Pestilence and famine followed the war." 

Logical subject, pestilence and famine; logical predicate, followed 
the war. 

The compound subject consists of the two simple subjects, pestilence 
and famine, which are not modified. 

Grammatical predicate, followed, modified by the objective war; war 
is modified by the adjective the. 

"The winds roar around the house and whistle at the door." 

Logical subject, the winds; logical predicate, roar around the house 
and whistle at the door. 

Grammatical subject, winds; modified by the adjective the. 

The compound predicate consists of the two simple predicates, roar 
around the house and whistle at the door. Roar is modified by the 

15 



170 



SYNTAX. 



adjunct around the house, and whistle is modified by the adjunct at 
the door. 

f Pestilence Winds | the 

r roar j around the house 



and 
famine 



followed | war | the 



and 

whistle | at the door. 



A night of storm followed a day of sunshine. Now fades the 
glimmering landscape on the sight. The curfew tolls the knell of 
parting day. A contented mind is a continual feast. That boy is 
intelligent and modest. Pestilence and famine followed the war. 
The winds roar around the house and whistle at the door. Wealth 
often produces misery. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 
Empty vessels make the greatest sound. A guilty conscience needs no 
accuser. A good cause makes a strong arm. The owner of that estate 
is a fortunate man. Idleness is the parent of many vices. Thus passes 
the glory of the world. Procrastination is the thief of time. 

Time and tide wait for no man. The devils believe and tremble. 
Alexander and Caesar were great conquerors. Demosthenes and Cicero 
Were celebrated orators. Beasts and birds have gone to rest. The 
princes of that day flourished and faded. The time for action came 
and passed. The rain fell on *the grass and restored its freshness. 
Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. The spirit of 
religion and the spirit of chivalry concurred to exalt his dignity. 

2. Arrange all the preceding sentences after the manner of the diagrams. 

3. Point out the subject and predicate and the modifications, as they are pre- 
sented in the following diagrams : 

Men | two Stone I a ^ an I ^ e 

I rolling 

gathers | moss | ] 



walked | with three boys. 



waits | for the boy. 



2^!i I peaceful 
closed | life 



Herd 



I the 
lowing 



stormy 



r Industry 
honesty 



and 
economy 



generally 
success. 



Z^ s | o'erlhe lea. 
Charity 

f soothed 
healed 

and 

blessed 



I that 
| old 
walks | with a staff. 



Man 



him. 



and 
I fruit 

are | beautiful.' 



the 

of that tree 



*The brace after leaves, flowers, and fruit is to show that they are all modified 
by the and of that tree. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 171 



' Andrew 
and 


'Lucinda . 




She 


and 


fsat | under the tree 


Thomas 


Clara 




■i and 


went | to town. 


have learned 


to read. 


[^read | hook | the 



Complex Sentences. 

Analyze the following complex sentences: 
"That the soul is immortal is believed by all nations." 
Logical subject, that the soul is immortal; logical predicate, is 
believed by all nations. 

Grammatical subject, the noun-proposition that the soul is immortal. 
Grammatical predicate, is believed, modified by the adjunct by all 
nations. 

Logical subject of the noun-proposition, the soul; logical predicate, 
is immortal. 

Grammatical subject, soul, modified by the adjective the. 
Grammatical predicate, is, modified by the predicate -adjective 
immortal. 

"I know who wrote that letter." 

Logical subject, J; logical predicate, know who wrote that letter. 

Grammatical subject, J. 

Grammatical predicate, know, modified by its object, the noun- 
proposition who wrote that letter. 

Logical subject of the noun - proposition, who; logical predicate, 
wrote that letter. 

Grammatical subject, who; grammatical predicate, wrote, modified 
by the objective letter, which is modified by the adjective that. 

f That I 

j soul | the know 

is | immortal 



is believed | by all nations. 



{who 
wrote | letter | that 



"The boy vjho studies will learn." 
Logical subject, the boy who studies; logical predicate, will learn. 
Grammatical subject, boy, modified by the adjective the and the 

adjective-proposition who studies. 

Logical and grammatical subject of the adjective-proposition, who; 

logical and grammatical predicate, studies. 



172 SYNTAX. 

"The lady that you met has gone to Nashville." 

Logical subject, the lady that you met; logical predicate, has gone to 
Nashville. 

Grammatical subject, lady, modified by the adjective the and the 
adjective-proposition that you met. 

Logical subject of the adjective-proposition, you; logical predicate, 
met that. 

Grammatical subject, you; grammatical predicate, met, modified by 
the objective that. 

the 



Bov 



rwho ^ady 



1 studie 



you 

met | that 



will learn. has gone | to Nashville. 

"He is ashamed that he acted so hastily." 
Logical subject, he; logical predicate, is ashamed that he acted so 



Grammatical subject, he; grammatical predicate, is, modified by the 
adjective ashamed; ashamed is modified by the adjunct-proposition that 
he acted so hastily. 

Logical subject of the adjunct-proposition, he; logical predicate, 
acted so hastily. Grammatical subject, he; grammatical predicate, 
acted, modified by the adverb hastily, and hastily by the adverb so. 

Remark.— When there is only one proposition one line is sufficient to mark 
the grammatical subject and the grammatical predicate. If there is a subordinate 
proposition, the grammatical subject and grammatical predicate in the principal 
proposition should have two lines and in the subordinate proposition one line. 
Ii tne subordinate proposition contains a modifying proposition, the principal 
proposition should have three lines, the proposition modifying it should have 
two, and the proposition modifying that should have one. Thus the number of 
lines will show the relative rank of the propositions. 

"I will tell you the secret when I see you." 
Logical subject, /; logical predicate, will tell you the secret when I 

see you. 

Grammatical subject, /; grammatical predicate, will tell, modified 

by the adjunct [to] you, the objective secret, and the adverb-proposition 

when I see you. Secret is modified by the adjective ///'■. 

Logical subject of the adverb-proposition, I; logical predii 

you when; grammatical subject, /; grammatical predicate, see, modified 

by the objective you and the adverb when. 



He 

is I ashamed 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 173 



f^t) "ISSetTke 



acted | hastily | so 



you 
I when 



That the soul is immortal is believed by all nations. I know who 
wrote that letter. The boy who studies will learn. The lady that you 
met has gone to Nashville. He is ashamed that he acted so hastily. 
I will tell you the secret when I see you. Brutus says he was am- 
bitious. I shall see you when you come. I know how he succeeded. 
That he will succeed is evident. I believe that he will be elected. 
I have lost the money which you gave me. The book that you lent 
me I have read. That [man] is the man who stole your purse. That 
is the boy that stole the apples. 

2. Arrange all the preceding sentences after the manner of the diagrams. 

3. Point out the subject and predicate and the modifications as they are 
presented in the following diagrams: 

I rHe I 

know | f who 1 succeeded | how heard | ^ ' 

[ took | book | my is | mystery | a j j~[ CQme 

Man | the He 

was changed j so 1 1 left] room] the 

did know him f (that) 

not ] h e 

l^^lbedrawnH the ( l uarreL 

Man I the 

==== J f patriotism | whose 

not 



would 



. force 
£ am I on the plain | of Marathon, 



r piety | whose 

J ,i I not i 

j would o. row warm 

[ I o I among the ruins | of Iona, 

is | to be envied | little. 

'■■That here is an adverb modifying did know— was changed in that degree (so) 
in which (that) I did not know him. 



174 



SYNTAX. 



He 

will rise 



again 
f (though) 
I he 
I should | fall. 

He 

will defeat [the person] 



He 

will do | [thing] 



[the] 

{whatever 
is | right. 



He 



whoever 



opposes | him. 



Dog | a 

{lay | in a manger 
and r snarling "] 

prevented hy < and \ his 
[ snapping J 
oxen | the 
from eating | hay 



{who 
made | world | the 
preserves 1 

and 
governs 



it 
now. 



Franklin 



learned 



[who 
1 became 

rhe 



afterward 
statesman 

and 
philosopher 



the 

J that I there 

[had been put for them. 



distinguished 



trade 



boy | a 

when 

his 



in the printing-office | of his brother 
[ Malt ] | this 
is I malt 



f who 

I was 



printer | a 
in Boston. 



| the 
that 



lay | in the house 



Jack 
built | that 



Emptiness ™ 

= | of human enjoyment 



is | such 



that 
we 



I always 
dissatisfied | with the present. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 



175 



Life 

is | short 

and 
art 

is | long 



tell 



Compound Sentences. 

Analyze the following compound sentences: 
"Life is short, and art is long." 
Compound sentence, the two propositions being connected by the 
coordinative conjunction and; The propositions to be analyzed in the 
usual way. 

"Tell me with whom you associate, and I will tell you what you are" 
Compound sentence, the two complex propositions being connected 
by the coordinative conjunction and. 

[You] We 

[to] me loved | them 

jyw -^- 

1 associate | with whom they 

and loved | us. 

I I [to] you 

win teli f y° u 

I [ are | what 

Life is short, and art is long. Tell me with whom you associate, 
and I will tell you what you are. We loved them, and they loved us. 

Now r setting Phoebus shone serenely bright, 

And fleecy clouds were streaked with purple light. 

Martha went out, but Mary remained in the house. Patience is a 
bitter seed, but it yields rich fruit. The bells ceased to toll, and the 
streets became silent. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

That landscape which fills the traveler with rapture is regarded 
with indifference by him who sees it every day from his window. 

The veil that covers from our sight the events of succeeding years 
is a veil woven by the hand of mercy. 

The spirit of religion and the spirit of chivalry concurred to exalt 
his dignity. — Macaulay. 

Then men fasted from meat and drink who fasted not from bribes 
and blood. Then men frowned at stage -plays who smiled at mas- 
sacres. — Macaulay. 

The Cynic who twitted Aristippus by observing that the philosopher 
who could dine on herbs might despise the company of a king, was well 



176 



answered by Aristippus when he remarked that the philosopher who 
could enjoy the company of a king might also despise a dinner of herbs. 

C ynic I the 

■ /- who 

(twitted | by observing I (that) 



was answered I wel J . ,. 

==^^ === . I by Aristippus 



the 
philosopher f who 

' 1 could | dine | on herbs 

(IhS) H^ I **Pise I company | tte ^ 

philosopher I the 

'who 



{who 
could | 



( could | enjoy | company | JJ e a ^ 



3g | demise I dinner I of herbs. 



Heaven bestows its gifts on whatever happy man will deign to use 
them=Heaven bestows its gifts on the happy man who will deign to 
use them. 

The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, 

Of wailing winds and naked woods and meadows brown and sere. 

Heaped in the hollows of the grove the withered leaves lie dead; 

They echo to the eddying gust and to the rabbit's tread. 

The robin and the wren are flown; and from the shrub the jay, 

And from the wood-top calls the crow, through all the gloomy day. 

Remark.— Saddest belongs to days understood, and this days is in apposition 
with days expressed. The melancholy days of wailing winds, etc., the saddest 
days of the year, are come. 



through all the gloomy day. 



'Tis from high life [that] high characters are drawn (Pope).— It is 
high life from which high characters are drawn. 

It is by such scoundrels that we find him to have been cheated of 
his inheritance. 

The smoother the surface, the deeper the water.=The water is 
deeper in the degree (the) in which (the) the surface is smoother. 

The deeper the well, the cooler the water.=The water is cooler 
in the degree (the) in which (the) the well is deeper. 



Jay 

[calls] 
and 


the -i 
from the shrub 


crow 
calls 


the 

from the wood-top 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 177 

Last noon beheld them full of lusty life, 
Last eve in beauty's circle proudly gay, 

The midnight brought the signal-sound of strife, 
The morn the marshaling in arms, the day 
Battle's magnificently stern array. — Byron. 

Remark.— In this passage there are five simple sentences, the verbs being 
understood in three. 

In Islington there was a man 

Of whom the world might say 
That still a godly race he ran 

Whene'er he went to, pray. — Goldsmith. 

[A man of whom the world might say that he still ran a godly 
race whene'er he went to pray was in Islington.] 

Few and short were the prayers we said, 
And we spoke not a word of sorrow; 

But we steadfastly gazed on the face of the dead 
As we bitterly thought on the morrow. — Wolfe. 

When twilight dews are falling fast 

Upon the rosy sea 
I watch the star whose beam so oft 

Has lighted me to thee. — Moore. 

[Who performs the principal action? I do what? What star? 
When do I watch it?] 

Because (by cause) of these things cometh the wrath of God. 

He was treated in a style according to his deserts. 

Remark. — According is a participle belonging to style. (See page 123.) 

[Respecting his conduct there is but one opinion. 

Remark.— Respecting is a participle belonging to opinion. 

The consideration of the Queen's message touching the marriage 
of the Duke of Edinburgh was resumed. 

A mortal disease was on the vitals of Rome before Caesar passed 
the Eubicon. 

Remark.— If before is regarded as a conjunctive adverb=before the time at 
which, this is a complex sentence ; but it is better to regard it as a preposition 
having for its object the noun - proposition, Csesar passed the Rubicon. Was is 
modified by the adjunct before Csesar passed the Rubicon. 



Disease ?L 



mortal 



I on the vitals | of Rome 
I before < 



| Rubicon | the 



178 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 
KULE I. 



The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case ; 
as, "He is honest." 

Remarks.— 1. The subject of a verb in the infinitive mood is in the objective 
case; as, "I believe him to be honest." 

2. An infinitive, a gerund, or a proposition may be the subject of a verb. (See 
page 149, 150.) 

3. When the verb is in the imperative mood, second person, the subject is 
generally omitted. (See page 153.) 

4. When the subject is a relative pronoun it is sometimes omitted; as, "Tis 
the sunset of life gives me mystical lore."— Campbell. " 'T is distance lends enchant- 
ment to the view." — Id. Except in such poetical forms, it is inelegant to omit the 
subject; as, "The captain had several men in the ship died of the scurvy." 

5. The verb is frequently omitted, particularly in answers to questions and 
after as and than ; as, " Who has read this book ? John [has read it] ;" " You read 
as well as he [reads] ;" " The smoother the surface [is], the deeper the water [is]." 

6. In but with the nominative the verb is disguised by contraction; as, "All 
perished but (be out) he." (See page 127.) 

By regarding but as never any thing but a preposition or conjunction some 
have been led to condemn such expressions as " Every one can master a grief but 
(be out) he that has it."— Shakespeare.* " Let none touch it but they who are dean." 
This is condemned by some grammarians because they regard but as a preposition 
or as a conjunction " connecting like cases ;" but the nominative they is correct. 

7. The subject generally precedes the verb ; but it is sometimes placed after the 
verb or the auxilliary ; as, " Will he go?" " Go thou;" " Knowest thou the land ?" 
" Were he good, he would be happy;" "Here am /;" "Great is IXana;" "There 
is he that deceived us ;'' "Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it ;" " Said 
he;" " Began the reverend sage;" " Him followed his next mate." 

8. Nominatives that should have verbs are sometimes improperly left without 
them; as, "These evils were caused by Catiline who, if he had been punished, 
the republic would not have been exposed to so great dangers." Here the nomi- 
native who is without a verb. The idea may be expressed thus : " These evils were 
caused by Catiline, the punishment of whom would have prevented the republic 
from being exposed to so great dangers." Or who may be omitted, the rest of the 
sentence remaining as it is: " These evils were caused by Catiline ; if he had been 
punished," etc. " This man, though he has much knowledge, yet he keeps it all 
to himself," should be "Though this man has," etc. 

9. It is in the use of the objective case of pronouns for the nominative that 
this rule is violated, the nominative and objective of other nouns being the same 



*"But being a preposition, it follows that such phrases as none but he are 
ungrammatical. A preposition must have the accusative case after it."— Mason's 
English Grammar, p. 89. Xone but he is as, good English as Mr. Mason ever wrote 
even in his most grammatical mood. 



What is the rule for the subject of a 
finite verb? 

In what case is the subject of the infin- 
itive? 

What besides nouns may be used as sub- 



When is the subiect omitted ? 
When is the verb omitted? 
What is said of butt 
Where is the subject placed ? 
Mention a sentence in which a nomina- 
tive is improperly left without a verb. 



SUBJECT OF FINITE VERB. 179 

in form. This violation occurs chiefly after as and than ; as, " The sun beholds not 
'twixt the poles a childe so excellent as him.'" — Rose's Ariosto. "If they are more 
precocious than us, it is because they are more feminine than us"— Readers Savage 
Africa* 

10. The objective whom in certain constructions is often carelessly used for the 
nominative who; as, "She was the servant, whom we found was a more truth- 
telling person than her mistress."— Scott. That is, whom was, the intervening 
words, we found, having nothing to do with the form of the pronoun. 

If the infinitive to be had been used instead of was, whom would have been 
correct— " Whom we found to be,'' etc. (See Remark 1.) 

11. The objective whomsoever is sometimes used instead of the nominative who- 
soever; as, "Threatening to shoot whomsoever dared to stop him."— Scott. The 
relative pronoun here should be in the nominative case, as it is the subject of the 
verb dared. The object of to shoot is the omitted antecedent. 

12. In methinks, me is not the objective incorrectly used for the nominative, but 
the old dative=to me. Thincan in Anglo-Saxon means to seem, and methinks=it 
seems to me. 

EXERCISES. 
1. Point out the subjects and the verbs: 
The gloomy night is gathering fast; 
Loud roars the wild, inconstant blast. — Burns. 
Burned Marmion's swarthy cheek like fire, 
And shook his very frame for ire. — Scott. 

"Who hut he could do it ? The earth hath swallowed all my hopes 
but she. — Shakespeare. Home has no firmer friend than he. You are 
as bad as he. "Who but a madman would suppose it is the game of such 
as he to have his name in every body's mouth? — Dickens. 
2. Correct the errors: 

Them that seek knowledge will find it. Him and me are of the 
same age. Her and me will be scolded. You are as old as her. "Who 
has a knife? Me. He has more books than me. He was by nature 
less ready than her. — A. Trollope. He has dined here, and me with 
him. — Jeffrey. Her brother was two years younger than me. — Dr. 
A. Carlyle. How far less blessed am I than them. — Mickle. To such 
as him Mr. Vavasor was not averse to make known the secrets of his 
prison-house. — A. Trollope. I may prove myself as gallant a soldier 
as him whom she has preferred. — Lever. A much more numerous lot 
was there almost as soon as them. — A. Trollope. 

*"As, in a few expressions, is rather used to connect words in the sense of 
apposition than as parts of distinct clauses ; as, ' England can spare such men as 
him.' — Brougham. Not 'such men as he is,' but 'such men, including him,' or 
simply 'him.' "—Kerl's Shorter Course in English Grammar. "Such men as he is" 
is precisely what Brougham meant, and he would scarcely have accepted this 
explanation of his careless expression. 

In what is this rule violated ? 
What is said of the objective whom? 



180 SYNTAX. 

[Remark 10.] She professed the greatest regard for the lady, whom, 
she assured us, was an angel. — Scott. She went on to name some of her 
acquaintance whom she knew would be there. — Thomas Hughes. The 
poor relations caught just the people whom they knew would like it. — 
Dickens. "Whom I afterwards perceived was regarded as a legal author- 
ity. — Lever. We rode to visit some emigrants whom we understood 
were there. — Dr. A. Carlyle. It is much easier to respect a man who 
has always had respect than to respect a man whom we know was last 
year no better than ourselves. — Boswell. 

[Remark 10, second paragraph.] Who I afterward perceived to be 
regarded as a legal authority. We rode to visit some emigrants who 
we understood to be there. The lady who she declared to be an angel. 
He was associated with those who we knew to be villains. Some of 
her acquaintances who she knew to be there. 

[Remark 11.] She always volunteered that information to whom- 
soever would receive it. — Dickens. Your Grace could in those days 
make fools of whomsoever approached you. — Scott. 

[Remark 8.] Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men 
are so constituted as to respect genuine merit. The cabinet, though it 
be exquisitely wrought and very rich, yet it comes infinitely short in 
value of the jewel that is hid and laid up in it. — Tillotson. 

RULE II. 
A noun modifying an intransitive verb or a verb in the 
passive voice must be in the nominative case; as, "It is /;" 
"He was called John."* 

*Dr. Latham assumes that 7 and me "stand in no etymological relations to 
each other," and he asserts that me is "a secondary or equivalent nominative; 
inasmuch as such phrases as it is me=it is I are common. Now to call such ex- 
pressions incorrect is to assume the point. No one says that &cst moi is bad French, 
and that e'est je is good. Caution. Observe, however", that the expression it is me= 
it is I will not justify the use of it is him, it is hermit is hi , it is she. Me, yr, you are 
What may be called indifferent forms, i. e. nominative as much as accusative, and 
accusative as much as nominative. Him and her, on the other hand, are not indif- 
ferent. The m and r are respectively the signs of cases other than the nomina- 
tive." — Latham's Hand-book of the English Language, p. 163. 

The first argument presented here is that it is me is common. It is him and it 
is her are equally as common, and the argument from commonness would justify 
the forms against which Dr. Latham cautions his readers. 

The second argument is that e'est moi is good French. The same argument 
would prove that it are them is good English. To be consistent, Dr. L. should say, 
" Now to call such expressions incorrect is to assume the point. No one says that 
ce sont eux is bad French, and that e'est its is good." 

But the only valid argument in favor of any word or expression is thai it is 
"common." No matter what may be the etymology of a word, no matter what 
may be the usage of other languages, it is the commomitss that establishes the prin- 
ciple. The commonness, however, must be of the right kind, and commonness 

What is the rule for the predicate-nominative ? 



PEEDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 181 

Remarks.— 1. The modifying nominative is called the predicate-nominative. 

2. In such peculiar constructions as "He was taught grammar" verbs in the 
passive voice are modified by objectives. (See Rule V, Remark 11.) 

3. The rule for the predicate-nominative is generally given in some such form 
as this: "Intransitive and passive verbs take the same case after them as before 
them when both words refer to the same thing." But participles, gerunds, and 
infinitives in their ordinary use, though they have no subjects, are modified in 

among illiterate or careless persons is not of the right kind. It is " common " in 
some parts of England to say, "It is good enough for he;" "The horses will not 
stand ; hold they." It is not possible that Dr. Latham was so ignorant as to believe 
that the form it is me is "common" among good writers; for the mere tyro in 
literature knows better. A good writer may happen to use this form, jus't as a 
well-educated person may happen to say, "I expect he has gone ;" but it is only in 
a moment of carelessness that he will do so. Dr. Latham's defense of it is me is 
simply an etymological freak, or an instance of what Mr. Marsh expressively calls 
" philological coxcombry." 

Even in the statement which he makes the foundation of his argument for 
it is me Dr L. is in error, for I and me do " stand in etymological relation to each 
other." The Anglo-Saxon accusative mec, from which comes me, and the Anglo- 
Saxon nominative ic, from which comes I, are cases derived from the same root. 
Restore the m, which originally belonged to the root, and ic would become mic. 
Compare with ic and mec the German ich and mich. 

Dean Alford in that pretentious work, "The Queen's English," regards Dr. 
Latham when maintaining the correctness of it is me as "a real grammarian;" 
but he seems to regard him as no better than one of the "grammarians of the 
smaller order" when he condemns it is him, it is her. The Dean also asserts the 
correctness of thee in Thomson's line, " The nations not so blest as thee." He is 
followed by Mr. Bain, Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen, who 
defends the use of such expressions as "He is taller than me," by quoting from 
Shakespeare " No mightier than thyself or me." This is only an accidental slip 
of Shakespeare's. To give such a slip as a sample of Shakespeare's style is like 
giving a stumble as a sample of a man's walk. Shakespeare's rule is to use the 
nominative in all the forms mentioned above. Let us examine the play, "Julius 
Csesar," which contains the passage quoted, and see if he gives countenance to 
Latham and the improvers on Latham. "In awe of such a thing as i" myself." 
"Endure the winter's cold as well as he." "Csesaris more dangerous than he." 
" That I am he." "Is not that he that lies upon the ground ?" "Is not that he?" 
"No, this was he." The advocates of the objective forms have quoted from 
"King Lear" the Fool's expression, "And yet I would not be thee, nuncle." 
Let us see how much support the rest of the play gives to these objective forms. 
"Be as well neighbored, pitied, and relieved as thou." " 'Tis they have put him 
on the old man's death." "It is both he and she." "'Tis he." "'Twas he." 
"Alack ! 'tis he." " O ! this is he." Let us take another play at random, "As You 
Like It." "Are as much bound to him as J." "I think of as many matters as 
he." " Such a one as she. " "'Tis he." "Aveyonhe?" " 'Twas I, but 'tis not I." 
" For I am he." " I '11 have no father, if you be not he." " I '11 have no husband, 
if you be not he." "Nor ne'er wed woman, if you be not she." Look at a single 
act of another play, "Othello." "'Tis lie." "Signior Lodovico? He, sir." "Even 
he, sir." "He, he, 'tis he." "As I." "It was not I." "You heard her say her- 
self it was not /." " 'T was I that killed her." "Ay, 't was he that told me first." 
" That 's he that was Othello." 

To show the absurdity of this "philological coxcombry," let us suppose 
changes made to suit it, such as the following: "In awe of such a thing as me 
myself." " Endure the winter's cold as well as him." " Csesar is more dangerous 
than him." " That I am him." " Is not that him ?" " 'T is them have put him on 
the old man's death." "I think of as many matters as him." "Are you him?" 
"Him, him, 't is him." " 'T was me that killed her." " You heard her say herself 
it was not me." "That's him that was Othello." Imagine Hamlet exclaiming, 
" This is me, Hamlet the Dane !" as he leaps into Ophelia's grave ! 

From Anglo-Saxon times down to the present it is the nominative that has 
been used in such constructions, and it is as incorrect to use the objective as 
it would be to say in English, "John struck I," or to say in Latin, "Cicero est 
orator em" 

Among Milton's " classic affectations " may sometimes be found the objective 
after than, because in Latin the ablative is used after the comparative. 



182 



SYNTAX. 



exactly the same way as verbs that have subjects; as, "It is said to be he;" "I 
have no doubt of its being he." The rule therefore should be so expressed as to 
include these verbal forms. 

4. When the infinitive has a subject in the objective the noun in the predicate 
is in the objective ; as, "He took her to be me." 

5. The verbs most frequently modified by the predicate-nominative are be, 
become, continue, appear, took, and the passive of the verbs call, name, make, render, 
appoint, elect, constitute, esteem, reckon, etc. 

6. An infinitive, a gerund, or a proposition may be employed as predicate- 
nominative; as, " To know her is to love her;" "Seeing is believing;" "The truth 
is that he is dishonest. 

7. The predicate-nominative is usually placed after the verb, but it is some- 
times placed before the verb, particularly when it is or is modified by an interrog- 
ative or an indefinite pronoun; as, "Who is he?" "Tell me whose son he is;" 
" The dog it was that died ;" " He is not the same man that he was." 

8. "Several of our journals hazard conjectures as to whom this correspondent 
was." If the subject and predicate were in the usual order, the subordinate 
proposition would be, " This correspondent was whom." Whom should be who, a 
nominative modifying the intransitive verb was. 

" That depends partly on whom the woman may be and partly on whom the 
man may be." — A. Trollope. "The woman may be whom;" "The man may be 
wJiom." 

To use some other word instead of u-hom will help us to understand the con- 
struction of such sentences. " Whom do men say that I am?" " Do men say that 
I am het" 

9. The number and person of the predicate-nominative may be different from 
those of the subject ; as, " Thou art he ;" " Words are wind." 

10. When the pronoun it is used before any part of the verb to be the predicate- 
nominative may be in either number and of any person or gender ; as, " It was I;" 
"It is he;" "It was the dog that died;" " It is men that are coming." 

In such sentences as the two last the adjective-proposition really modifies the 
subject—" It that died was the dog ;" but the verb takes the person and number of 
the predicate-nominative, as if it were the predicate-nominative that is modified — 
" It that are coming is men." 

11. The form of the verb is not affected by the predicate-nominative ; what- 
ever affects the form of the verb is regarded as the subject; as, " His pavilion were 
dark waters and thick clouds of the sky "=" Dark waters and thick clouds of the 
sky were his pavilion." 

But such forms as " His pavilion were " are harsh, and it is better to express 
the idea in a different way; as, " His pavilion was formed of dark wato 

"The wages of sin is death." Here wages is used as singular, as it is in the 
following passage : " He that earneth wages earneth wages to put it in a bag with 
holes."— English Bible. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the predicate-nominative in each of the following sentences : 
She is a queen. She walks a queen. He is an orator. He is con- 
sidered a poet. Procrastination is the thief of time. — Young. I am lie. 



What besides finite verbs may have pred- 
icate-nominatives ? 

When the infinitive has a subject in 
what case is the noun in the pred. ? 

Mention the verbs most frequently mod- 
ified by predicate-nominatives. 



What besides nouns may be employed 

as predicate-nominativr? 
Where is the pred. -num. placed? 
What is said of the number and person 

of the predicate-nominative f 
What is said of such sentences as "It is I"? 



PKEDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 183 

Are you the agent? That tree is an oak. "Washington was elected 
President of the United States. He was elected consul. The child is 
father of the man. — Wordsworth. Thy word is truth. Stephen died a 
martyr. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. — English 
Bible. I come no enemy. — Milton. His youngest child is a daughter. 
And he returned a friend who came a foe. — Pope. He reigned absolute 
monarch. He seems the best man for the place. It was the owl that 
shrieked. Some Scottish statesmen who were zealous for the king's 
prerogative had been bred Presbyterians. — Macaulay. It is I that 
perceive, I that imagine, I that attend, I that compare, I that feel, I 
that will, I that am conscious. — Sir William Hamilton. Art thou that 
traitor angel ? Art thou he who first broke peace in heaven ? — Milton. 

[Kemark 3.] He was unwilling to be chairman. He was averse to 
being chairman. I wish to be your friend. He hopes to be elected 
governor. There was a certain man called Cornelius. Have you heard 
of his having been taken prisoner ? There is no doubt of his being a 
statesman. To become a grammarian requires study. He is in danger 
of becoming a coxcomb. He must think of turning tutor again. — 
Macaulay. Being a prudent man, he would not take that course. I 
have some recollection of his father's being a judge. To be the slave 
of passion is of all slavery the most wretched. I have no objection to 
his being umpire. He affects to be a lord. 

[Kemark 7.] Who art thou? Who am I? ' I will tell thee who I 
am. Who is he? Whose daughter is she? Tell me whose daughter 
she is. Whose house is that? She is not the same woman that she 
was. The woman it is that suffers. Night it must be ere Friedland's 
star will beam. — Carlyle. A man he was to all the country dear. — 
Goldsmith. 

2. Correct the errors: 

It was not me that broke the chair. It was not her; it was him. 
It is me that must read it. It was us that saw him fall. If I were 
him, I would not do that. It is me that he means. Is it him that has 
written this letter ? It is them we are to hold accountable. So long as 
there was any body, no matter whom [it was], within reach of the sound 
of his voice. — Wilkie Collins. My conductor answered that it was him. 

[Eemark 3.] I am not sure of its being him. It is said to be him 
that did it. It is supposed to be her. Its being me must make no 
difference. 

[Eemark 4.] I took it to be she. Who do you take me to be? I 
believed it to be he. He had taken Oliver to be he. — Dickens. Who 
did you suppose it to be? I know it to be they. 



184 



RULE III. 
A noun used independently or absolutely must be in the 
nominative case. 

A noun is said to be used independently — 

1. When in a direct address it stands without a verb; as, "James, 
did you see him?" 

2. In mere exclamations ; as, " O the tunes I O the manners /" 

3. When the attention is called to an object before an affirmation is N 
made respecting it; as, " My friends, where are they?" 

Nouns used in any of these ways are said to be in the nominative 
case independent. 

A noun is said to be used absolutely when that noun and a parti- 
ciple are used instead of a subordinate proposition ; as, " Honor being 
lost, all is lost." " Honor being lost "=" When honor is lost." 

A noun used in this way is said to be in the nominative case absolute. 
Remarks.— 1. Being and having been are sometimes omitted ; as, 
" Her wheel at rest, the matron thrills no more, 
With treasured tales and legendary lore."— Rogers. 

2. Some words of very general signification, such as men, we, you, they, are often 
omitted before the participle ; as, " Every thing was comfortless and forlorn, [we] 
excepting a crew of very hard-drinking ducks." — Irving. "Ancient Germany, [we] 
excluding from its independent limits the provinces westward of the Rhine, ex- 
tended itself over a third part of Europe."— Gibbon. (See Remark 9, p. 124.) 

The same construction may be seen in the following passages : " His conduct, 
viewing it in the most favorable light, was discreditable;" "Regarding the matter 
in this light, he seems to have been very badly treated;" "There were twenty 
men, including the officers;" "Her reading, generally speaking, was excellent;" 
"Seeing that he is so obstinate, let us leave him ;" "Considering that he has had so 
little time, he has made great progress ;" "Granting he had the right, he was very 
rash;" "Admitting his veracity, his testimony is not conclusive;" "Allowing the 
truth of this statement, is he to be released ?" 

3. Some words generally regarded as prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs 
are really participles belonging to nouns in the nominative absolute ; as, "During 
his life, he was persecuted ;" "Pending the suit, he held the property ;" " Notwith- 
standing his denial, I believe him guilty." (See Remarks 10, 11, p. 125.) " None 
shall mistress be of it save I alone."— Shakespeare. I is the nominative absolute 
with save. (See Remark 13, p. 126.) 

Ago is the participle agonc, from which the sound of n has been dropped. 
•• Three days agone I fell sick."— English Bible. " He *s drunk, Sir Toby, an hour 
agone."— Shakespeare. (See Remark 13, p. 134.) In these passages days and hour 
are in the nominative case absolute with the participle agone. " Ten years ago he 



What is the rule for a noun used inde- 
pendently or absolutely? 

When is a noun said to be used inde- 
pendently? Absolutely.' 

Wnat participles are sometimes omitted ? 



What nouns are often omitted before 
participles? Give examples. 

Explain "During his life." "Pending 
the suit." " Notwithstanding his ■!<•- 
nial." "Save I alone." "Two days ago." 



NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT AND ABSOLUTE. 185 

was a prosperous man." Years is in the nominative case absolute with the parti- 
ciple ago. 

4. A noun-proposition may be used like a noun in the nominative absolute ; 
as, ''That he is of age being admitted ;" "Admitted that he is of age. n The noun- 
proposition, that he is of age, is here regarded as a noun (a unit) in the nominative 
absolute with the participle. " Being that I flow in grief, the smallest twine may 
lead me."— Shakespeare. The noun-proposition, that I flow in grief, is used as a 
noun in the nominative absolute with the participle being — that I flow in grief 
being. (See Remark 4, p. 140.) 

The following are examples of the same construction: "Granted that he has 
the ability, yet he has not the energy ;" -"Admitted he could have written it, we 
wish to know whether he did write it ;" "He had no advantage over his opponent, 
except that he was favored by the general ;" "And so we will, provided that he win 
her;" "It has happened as I would have it, save that he comes not along with 
her;" "He will accept the office, notwithstanding he dislikes it." Such sentences 
may be either with or without that* 

5. The objective should not be used for the nominative absolute. "I over- 
thrown," not "Me overthrown."! 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the nouns in the nominative case independent: 
Plato, thou reasonest well. — Addison. O thou that rollest above, 
whence are thy beams, O sun! — Ossian. Come, rest in this bosom, 
my own stricken deer. — Moore. Hamlet, thou hast thy father much 
offended. Mother, you have my father much offended. — Shakespeare. 
The sky is changed — and such a change! O night 
And storm and darkness! ye are wondrous strong. — Byron. 
O the perversity of human nature ! O the misery I have suffered ! 
The foe! they come, they come! — Byron. Silence how deep, and 
darkness how profound! — Young. 

The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 

Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? — Pope. 

My friends, do they now and then send 

A wish or a thought after me? — Cowper. 

* To treat the participles in such sentences as what they are, participles, sim- 
plifies analysis and parsing ; while to treat them as what they are not, conjunctions, 
often makes a disagreeable jumble. "And so we will, provided he win her." 
Here provided is said to be a conjunction connecting the two propositions ; but we 
may insert that, which is also said to be a conjunction, and what, does thai connect? 
"And so we will, if that he win her."=" And so we will, given that he win her." 
To regard if in such forms as if that he win her as a participle renders the construc- 
tion simple and intelligible; while to regard if and that as conjunctions serves 
only to perplex. To regard if as the imperative makes the construction equally 
simple; the proposition following if being in that case the object of if. (See 
Remark 6, p. 140.) 

f" Milton's me overthrown is classic affectation." — March's Anglo-Saxon Gram- 
mar, p. 148. In the Anglo-Saxon language the dative is the case absolute; but 
Milton did not use the form me overthrown in imitation of the Anglo-Saxon dative, 
but in imitation of the Latin ablative absolute. 

How may noun-propositions be used ? What is said of " Me overthrown " ? 

16 



186 SYNTAX. 

2. Point out the nouns in the nominative case absolute: 
Hearts agreeing, heads may differ. The rain having ceased, we 
may proceed on our way. These matters having been arranged, the 
company separated. His horse being unmanagable, he dismounted. 
The master being absent, the business was neglected. I am loved of 
all ladies, only you excepted. — Shakespeare. I '11 rhyme you so eight 
years together, dinners and suppers and sleeping-hours excepted. — Id. 
The jarring states, obsequious now, 
View the patriot's hand on high, 
Thunder gathering on his brow, 
Lightning flashing from his eye. 
[Kem. 1.] Self-love and reason to one end aspire, 

Pain their aversion, pleasure their desire. — Pope. 
Fire in each eye and papers in each hand, 
They rave, recite, and madden round the land. — Id. 
Far in a wild, unknown to public view, 
From youth to age a reverend hermit grew; 
The moss his bed, the cave his humble cell, 
His food the fruits, his drink the crystal well; 
Remote from men, with God he passed his days, 
Prayer all his business, all his pleasure praise. — Parnell. 
[Remark 2.] Excluding the officers, there were fifty men. Regarding 
the condition of his troops, he succeeded as well as could be expected. 
Granting him ability, where is his honesty? Seeing gentle words will 
not prevail, assail them with the army of the king. — Shakespeare. 

[Remark 3.] During the trial, he showed no excitement. Pending 
the discussion, I will give no opinion. Valerian resolved, notwith- 
standing his advanced age, to march in person to the defense of the 
Euphrates. — Gibbon. Save his good broadsword, he weapon had 
none. — Scott. How his audit stands who knows, save Heaven. — 
Shakespeare. A year ago, I saw him in Rome. You can not take 
from me any thing that I will more willingly part withal, except 
my life, except my life, except my life. — Shakespeare. 
That mortal dint, 
Save He who reigns above, none can resist. — Milton. 
[Remark 4.] That he is of sound mind being granted, he has power 
to do this. Provided that you will furnish him with money enough, he 
will go. Admitted that your statement is correct, it does not relieve 
you from blame. I accept your statement, notwithstanding that there 
are so many against you. Jie baa every thing in his favor, except that 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 187 

he is so indolent. Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain 
that build it. — English Bible. 

3. Correct the errors: 

[Kemark 5.] Him destroyed, the rest will yield. Her having told 
me, I must believe it. Them being absent, the cause can not be 
decided. 

KITLE IV. 

A noun in the possessive case modifies another noun; as, 
"John's book has his name in it." 

Here the noun John's modifies or limits the application of the noun 
book; the word book itself is applicable to any book, but the possessive 
John's limits the application to a particular book.* 

Remarks.— 1. The modified noun is sometimes omitted; as, "This book is 
Henry's [book] ;" " This is a book of Henry's [books] ;" " He is at the governor's 
[house] ;" " He admires St. Paul's [church]." 

With the pronouns ours, yours, hers, theirs the modified noun is never expressed, 
these forms being appropriated for use when the modified nouns are omitted ; as, 
" This book is yours [book] ;" " This is a book of yours [books]." At present mine 
and thine are seldom used with the modified noun expressed ; they were formerly 
used before words beginning with a vowel or h; as, "Mine own tears."— Shake- 
speare. "Thine eye shall be instructed, and thine heart," etc.— Cowper. (See 
Remarks 1, 2, 3, p. 50.) 

2. Pronouns never take the apostrophe. Write yours, not your's. 

3. When two or more nouns are employed to designate one object the posses- 
sive sign is added to the last noun ; as, " General Washington's tent ;" " Paul the 
apostle's advice;" "Smith the bookseller's house;" "Tbe Duke of Wellington's 
army." Here Wellington's is not in the possessive case, but in the objective after 
the preposition of; but the whole title is given as one name, and the possessive 
sign is placed at the end. 

The possessive sign is placed thus only when the words are so closely con- 
nected as to be in effect one name. It is correct to say, "John Brown of Hadding- 
ton's Works," because the adjunct of Haddington is generally employed as part of 
the designation of a particular John Brown; but if this adjunct were employed 
merely to point out the place of residence, it would not be correct to place the 
possessive sign after it. We should then say, "The Works of John Brown, of 
Haddington." If the modified noun is not expressed, we may say either "At 
Smith the bookseller's" or "At Smith's, the bookseller." In the latter case there 
is a comma between the two nouns ; and if the modified noun is expressed after 
the nouns denoting the possessor, there should be a comma before it; as, " Mr. 
Good, the tailor's, servant " = " servant of Mr. Good, the tailor." Without the 

-Some have absurdly contended that the possessive case is not a noun, but an 
adjective. " That I have ta'en away this old man's daughter."— Shakespeare. If 
man's is an adjective, this and old must be adverbs! 



What is the rule for a noun in the pos- 
sessive case ? 

Give some examples in which the modi- 
fied noun is omitted. 

Mention the pronouns with which the 
modified noun is omitted. 



Do pronouns take the apostrophe? 
Explain "General Washington's tent." 

"The Duke of Wellington's army." 
What is the difference between "Mr. 

Good, the tailor's, servant " and " Mr. 

Good, the tailor's servant " ? 



188 



SYNTAX. 



comma before servant the expression would represent Mr. Good as being the 
tailor's servant— "Mr. Good, the tailor's sen-ant." 

4. After the possessive sign the ear requires the name of the thing possessed 
to be in close connection with it; therefore no term merely explanatory, nothing 
that requires to be set off by the comma should come between them. "They 
condemned King Corney's, as he was called, dissipated habits " should be " They 
condemned the dissipated habits of King Corney, as he was called." 

"Warming his hands as if they were somebody else's."— Dickens. Here, in 
order to have it immediately before the modified noun, the possessive sign is 
removed from the noun in the possessive case and placed after the adjective 
belonging to the noun. 

5. When we say, *' These are John's and Eliza's books," using the possessive 
sign with both nouns, we mean that some of the books belong to John and some 
to Eliza; when we say, "These are John and Eliza's books," using the possessive 
sign with the last noun only, we mean that all the books are owned in common 
by John and Eliza. "Can you tell me whether he has been informed of Mr 
Anthony and Miss Melville's arrival?"— Slieridan. Sir Anthony and Miss Melville 
arrived in company with each other. "Requesting his consent to Sam and Mr. 
Winkle's remaining at Bristol."— Dickens. The remaining was to be common to 
both. 

6. Goold Brown and others maintain that such expressions as "Johnson's and 
Richardson's Dictionaries" are incorrect, because we can not say, "Johnson's 
Dictionaries and Richardson's Dictionaries." Of course we do not say, ''Johnson's 
Dictionaries," for the very good reason that Ave are thinking of but om thing ; but 
we do say, "Johnson's and Richardson's Dictionaries," for the equally good reason 
that we are thinking of two things. We say, "The Old and New Testaments," 
because we are thinking of two Testaments. A person holding in his hand a 
knife belonging to John and another knife belonging to William would hardly 
venture to say, "These are John's and William's knife," even though he might 
have "Brown's Grammar of English Grammars" open before him. 

The attempt to better the English by using the form "Johnson's Dictionary 
and Richardson's" is a failure; for this form is stiff and pedantic. A speaker 
may say, "I have consulted Johnson's Dictionary," and then add, "and Richard- 
son's," as the result of a second thought ; but if he sets out to mention both, this 
form is contrary to the English idiom. 

"He had his father's and mother's advice" is correct, because advice is an 
abstract noun, having no plural in the sense in which it is here used. 

7. The relation of possession may be denoted by the preposition of with the 
objective; as, The house of my father "=" My father's house." This form is 
sometimes called the Norman genitive (possessive). 

This form does not always denote possession. "A crown of gold " signifies a 
crown made of gold; "A house of representatives" signifies a house composed of 
representatives. In these expressions the possessive could not have been ua 

When the idea may be expressed by either of these forms we should use that 
which will tend most to produce smoothness and clearness. Instead of " Hi- 
wife's sister" we should say, "The sister of his son's wife ;" instead of "The dis- 
tress of the son of the king " we should say, " The distress of the king's son." 



What is the error in " They condemned 
King Corney's, as he was called, dissi- 
pated habits" ? 

Explain "These are John's and Eliza's 
books." " These are John and Eliza's 
books." 

Should we say "Johnson's and Richard- 



son's Dictionary .* " or "Johnson and 

Richardson's Dictionary/ " ? 
In what other way mav the relation of 

possession be denoted '.' 
Wiiat should we say instead of "His 

son's wife's sister"? Instead of " The 

distress of the son of the king"? 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 



189 



" The love of God " may mean either the love that God feels or the love that is 
felt toward God; but "God's love" denotes only the love that God feels. "My 
father's picture " means a picture owned by my father; " a picture of my father " 
means a likeness of my father, whether he owns it or not; "a picture of my 
father's" means one of several pictures owned by my father. 

Coleridge and others have maintained that none but nouns denoting persons 
or personified objects should take the possessive case, and that it is only in modern 
usage that nouns denoting objects of any other kind do take it. But, to say noth- 
ing of Anglo-Saxon, the names of objects other than persons or personified objects 
take the possessive case in the writings of old English authors. In the cauldron 
of the witches in " Macbeth " are 

"Adder's fork and blind-worm's sting, 
"Lizard's leg and owlet's wing." 
The names of even inanimate objects often take the possessive case ; as, "Summer's 
day, winter's cold, cannon's mouth." "Tears of compassion," however, is better 
than "compassion's tears." 

8. In the form " This book is Henry's" the word book, modified by the posses- 
sive Henry's, is supplied by the context ; but in such expressions as " Thou art 
Freedom's now and Fame's "=" Thou belongest to Freedom now and Fame," the 
modified noun is not supplied by the context. It is some such word as property or 



9. " This is a book of Henry's "=" This is one of Henry's books," implies that 
Henry has several books of which this book is one ; but such forms have been 
perverted so as to be used in familiar language when there is no thought of more 
than one ; as, " That face of his is enough to condemn him." 

10. A gerund, either alone or modified by other words, may be modified by a 
noun in the possessive case ; as, " I am opposed to John's writing ;" " I am opposed 
to his devoting himself to that subject." 

This is one of the most common idioms of the language, and no case but the 
possessive should be used in such sentences as the preceding. " I am opposed to 
John writing " can mean nothing if it does not mean that I am opposed to John 
who is writing. 

Brown calls this form "questionable English;" but his objections arise from 
his failure to distinguish the gerund, the noun, from the participle, the adjective. 
A proper conception of the distinction would have saved him the labor of writing 
several pages of confusion. The following are examples of this idiom: "The 
cause, sir, of my standing here." — Shakespeare. "His clearly predicting the future 
revelation of this doctrine." — Dr. Barrow. " That point of your seeming to be 
fallen out with God." — Sir William Temple. "Whose mauling them about their 
heads." — Thos. Fuller. "Upon the fellow's telling him he would warrant it." — 
Addison. " The truth of Mrs. Bargrave's seeing Mrs. Veal's apparition."— Defoe. 
"His living thus in a course of flattery." — Pope. " You will have heard of Marshal 
Belleisle's being made a prisoner." — Horace Walpole. "An account of his Catholic 
Majesty's having agreed to the neutrality." — Hume. " The opportunity of Gauntlet's 
being alone with him."— Smollett. " This she imputed to Joseph's having discovered 
to her what passed."— Fielding. " Upon my landlord's leaving the room."— Gold- 
smith. " I put a positive interdict on my room's being exhibited." — Irving. " The 
old story of Sir Walter Raleigh's looking from his prison- window." — Carlyle. 

Some modern writers drop the 's ; but what they would say about the case of 
the noun that is left it is hard to tell. " Not a morning passes without Garibaldi 



"What is said of the names of inanimate 

objects? 
What noun is understood in " Thou art 

Freedom's now and Fame's " ? 



What is said of the gerund with a noun 

in the possessive case ? 
Should we say "On the fellow's telling 

him " or " On the fellow telling him " ? 



190 SYNTAX. 

being seen at this chosen spot." Without he being seen, or without him being seen ? 
If the writer of the following passage is authority on the subject of this neologism, 
it should seem that the noun used with the gerund is in the nominative 
"He told Mr. Welch about he and Charlie getting the pig."— Rev. Elijah Kellogg. 
But it is seldom that any writer forgets English so much as to use any case of pro- 
nouns but the possessive. 

Dickens and Scott use both the form with '« and the form without 's; as, "The 
probability of Miss Nickleby's arriving at this happy consummation."— Dickens. 
" He had given his gracious consent to the young couple commencing housekeep- 
ing."— Id. "The probability of Lord EvandaWs becoming a mediator."— .Sc-o//. 
"The motto alludes to the author returning to the stage repeatedly.— itf. The 
second passage from Dickens might mean that the person had given his consent 
about something to the young couple who were commencing housekeeping. The 
motto to which Sir Walter refers in the second passage does not allude to the 
author, but to the author's returning. 

"There was no opportunity for his zeal displaying itself."— Scott. "I have 
some sense of suspicion and distrust being poor qualities in one of my years." — 
Dickens. In neither of these passages should the gerund have been used at all. 
The first sentence should be, "There was no opportunity for his zeal to display 
itself;" the second should be, " I have some sense that suspicion and distrust are 
poor qualities in one of my years." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the nouns modified by nouns in the possessive case: 

One man's loss is sometimes another's man's gain. John's book was 
found on James's table. This man was taken by the Duke's officers, 
who, in obedience to their master's directions, had driven him from all 
his hiding-places. 

[Remark 1.] This desk is William's. He went to Mr. Smith's. 
He visited St. Peter's. Edward's books are not Peter's. My books 
are not yours. Your books are not mine. Thy father's virtue is not 
thine. That flower is Mary's. That flower is hers. This pen is one 
of James's. That pen is one of yours. 

[Remark 3.] I saw him in Colonel Thomson's field. The Earl of 
Orford's son was very ill. They remember Judge Owen's charge. I 
read General Jackson's letter. The Duke of Ormond's daughter was 
married. 

[Remark 5.] These are John's and William's books. These are 
John and William's books. He lives north of Mason and Dixon's 
line. Let us go to Johnson and Fletcher's factory. 

[Remark 6.] Smith's and Jones's wives were there. I have con- 
sulted Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries. 

[Remark 8.] Thou art Glory's now. Gay hope is theirs. The 
sunshine of the breast is hers. The present moment alone is ours. 

[Remark 10.] Upon his advancing towards me with a whisper 
I expected to hear some secret piece of news. — Addison. My -• 
tions were too violent to permit my attempting her rescue. — Goldsmith. 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 191 

His discourse was broken off by his man's telling him he had called a 
coach. — Addison. All my ideas were put to flight by my intolerable 
landlady's tapping at the door. — Irving. What was to be expected 
from the unfortunate girl's uniting her fate to that of a character so 
notorious as Kobertson's? — Scott. 

2. Correct the errors: 

His brothers crime is not his. A mothers tenderness and a fathers 
care are natures gifts for mans advantage. John Thomson his book. 
Lucy Morrow her book. 

[Kemark 2.] This book is your's. The tree is known by it's fruit. 
You left your books and took our's and their's. 

[Kemark 3.] At Smith's the bookseller's house. The people began 
to say that Fred's molasses was sweeter than any body's else. — Rev. 
E. Kellogg. Brown's the surgeon's knife. 

[Kemark 4.] She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, 
excellent understanding. She praised the child's, as she called him, 
ready wit. This was Mr. "White's, the gentleman who informed me, 
account of the affair. 

[Kemark 6.] Brown's and Jones's wife was there. Towne's and 
Kay's Arithmetic. 

[Kemark 7.] The world's government is not left to chance. She 
married my son's wife's brother. The extent of the prerogative of the 
King of England is sufficiently ascertained. It was necessary to have 
the physician's and surgeon's advice. It was the men's, women's, and 
children's lot to suffer. This is a picture of my father ; it is a portrait 
of the Emperor Nicholas. 

[Kemark 10.] They have no notion of the same person possessing 
different accomplishments. Such was the occasion of Simon Glover pre- 
senting himself at the house of Henry Gow. — Scott. He pointed out the 
difficulty of counsel doing justice without preparation. — Lord Campbell. 
On the gentleman going up to his assistance. — Dean Ramsay. The 
question may be settled by the king running away. Nor has any proof 
yet been found of Weston being put into the cell to kill Overbury. — W. 
H. Dixon. So far from women exercising little or no influence over the 
progress of knowledge, they are capable of exercising, and have exer- 
cised, an enormous influence. — Buckle. To prevent it taking fire. — 
Rev. E. Kellogg. She could scarce conceive the possibility of her will 
being opposed, far less that of its being treated with disregard.* — Scott. 

*Here the author puts its in the possessive, though he has just used "will 
being opposed." 



192 



SYNTAX. 



EULE V. 
The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be 
in the objective case; as, " She sees me-" "They built a Jwuse." 

Remarks.— 1. Participles, gerunds, and infinitives have objects like finite 
verbs; as, "Seeing me;" "To see me;" "They are building a house." 

2. An infinitive, a gerund, or a proposition may be the object of a transitive 
verb ; as, " Boys love to play ;" " Boys love playing ;" "I know who lives here." 

3. In the usual order of arrangement the subject precedes and the object fol- 
lows the verb. When a pronoun is used either as subject or object the object is 
sometimes placed before the verb ; as, "Him I know ;" " This subject he has exam- 
ined." The form of the pronoun in each of these sentences prevents any ambi- 
guity ; but from " Darius Alexander conquered " we can not learn who conquered. 

But some sentences containing no pronouns maybe of such a character that 
the object may be placed before the verb without causing ambiguity; as, ".Such 
charms has the maiden;" "So great power does the king possess." Placing the 
object before the verb renders it more emphatic. 

4. Relative, interrogative, and indefinite pronouns are placed as near as pos- 
sible to the beginning of their propositions, and thus they precede the verb ; as, 
" The man whom I met ;" " Whom did you see ?" 

5. The object is sometimes omitted when it is easily supplied or when the idea 
is designedly left indefinite ; as, " He reads every day." The object is frequently 
omitted when it is a relative pronoun ; as, " This is the man I saw." Here whom 
or that, the object of saw, is omitted. 

6. Some verbs usually intransitive may become transitive by taking objectives 
of signification kindred to their own; as, "He runs a race;" "They live a happy 
life." Allied to this construction are such expressions as the following: "Death 
grinned horribly a ghastly smile;" " Her lips blush deeper sweets;" " Groves whose 
rich trees wept odorous gums and balms." 

7. Some verbs usually intransitive are sometimes made transitive by being 
used in a causative sense; as, " He galloped his horse up the hill"=" He caused 
his horse to gallop up the hill." 

The verb learn has sometimes been used in a causative sense and made to take 
an objective denoting the person; as, "He learned me grammar." As we have 
the verb teach with this meaning, this use of learn should be avoided. 

The objective it is sometimes used as a kind of expletive after verbs usually 



intransitive; as, 



" Come and trip it as you go 
On the light fantastic toe."— Milton. 



8. Transitive verbs are sometimes improperly used as intransitive by having a 
preposition placed between them and the objects ; as, " The house caught on lire ;'* 
"I can not allow of that." 

We may say, "This does not admit such a construction," or "This does not 
admit of such a construction ;" " He plays the flute," or " He plays on the flute ;" 



What is the rule for the object of a tran- 
sitive verb? 

Do any but finite verbs have objects 

What besides nouns may be objects of 
transitive verbs? 

What is the usual order of arrangement? 

When is this order deviated from! 

What is said of the position of relative, 
interrogative, and indefinite pronouns? 



When is the object omitted ? 

How may some verba usually intransi- 
tive become transitive? 

What is said of it f 

How are transitive verbs sometimes im- 
properly used as intransitive? 

Mention some verbs used either transi- 
tively or intransitively, being followed 
or not followed by prepositions. 



OBJECT OF TRANSITIVE VERB. 193 

"Jump the fence," or "Jump over the fence;" "Ride a horse," or "Ride on a 
horse ;" " Nothing can compensate the loss of reputation," or " Nothing can com- 
pensate for the loss of reputation." 

9. The verb graduate is now used sometimes as transitive and sometimes as 
intransitive; as, "He was graduated last year;" "He graduated last year." The 
transitive sense is to be preferred. The intransitive sense is not mentioned in 
Johnson's Dictionary. 

10. Locate is sometimes improperly used as intransitive; as, "He has located 
in Cincinnati." 

The transitive verb leave is often used in an intransitive sense ; as, " When do 
you expect to leave?" Leave is not used in this sense by writers of the highest 
class, and this intransitive sense is not mentioned in the dictionaries. There is no 
necessity for using leave in this sense ; for we have start, set out, go, take leave, etc. 

11. Some verbs may have two objectives, one denoting the object on which the 
action is exerted, the other denoting what the object is made, in fact or in thought, 
to be; as, "They made him captain;" "They consider him a good man;" "The 
society elected him chairman." 

The second objective is sometimes called the "factitive objective" (from Latin 
facere, to make). 

The verbs used in this way are those that in the passive voice have a predicate- 
nominative ; such as clioose, appoint, elect, constitute, render, esteem, consider, reckon, 
name, call. 

After some of these verbs we may suppose an ellipsis of the verb to be; as, "I 
consider him [to be] a good man." 

This construction is not apposition. A noun in apposition with another noun 
is annexed for the sake of explanation or description and may be omitted ; but in 
this construction the second noun is essential. There is a great difference between 
" He called Cicero, the father of his country," and " He called Cicero the father of 
his country;" the former sentence meaning that he called Cicero, who was the 
father of his country, the latter that he gave to Cicero the appellation of father of 
his country. With the verb changed to the passive voice the former sentence 
would become, " Cicero, the father of his country, was called by him;" the latter 
would become, " Cicero was called the father of his country by him." 

12. Some verbs are followed by two objectives ; one being the direct object of 
the verb, the other generally denoting the person to or for whom something is 
done; as, "He gave me a book;" " Forgive ms out debts;" "She taught him gram- 
mar;" " They allowed him a seat ;" " It cost him a dollar." 

The Anglo-Saxons had a dative case, expressing by a termination what we 
express by a preposition ; wulf, wolf, for instance, having in the dative tvulfe, to or 
for a wolf. The nouns denoting persons in the preceding examples are probably 
remnants of this dative, and some call a word used in this way the indirect Qbjeci 
of the verb. But if the order of the words is changed, we must express a prepo- 
sition ; as, " She gave a book to me ;" " Buy a book for her ;" and it is as well to 
suppose a preposition implied, in accordance with the genius of modern English. 
Wycliffe has " Forgeue to us our dettes." 

13. It is generally only the direct object of a transitive verb in the active voice 
that becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice ; but in some cases the 
indirect object, or objective with a preposition implied, has been treated as the 
direct object and made the subject of the verb in the passive voice ; as, " They 



Give an example of a verb with two ob- 
jectives. 

What is the second objective called? 

Mention some of the verbs used in this 
way. 

17 



Explain " He gave me a book." 
Is it correct to say, " I was given a book?" 
Why? 



194 SYNTAX. 

nllowed him a seat," "He was allowed a seat;" "James gave me a book," "I was 
given a book by James ;" " We forgave him the debt," "He was forgiven the debt" 

This is the common construction with the verbs ask and teach, and it is some- 
times used by good writers with other verbs; but in general the direct object of 
the verb in the active voice should be made the subject of the verb in the passive. 
Say, "A book was handed to me," not " I was handed a book ;" " The office was 
promised to me," not "I was promised the office." A London correspondent of 
one of the New York journals writes, "As a lady was being shown through the 
show." This makes the lady a part of the show. 

If it is desired to place the indirect object at the beginning of the proposition, 
the form may be changed ; as, " He had a seat allowed him ;" " He had the promise 
of the office." 

14. Some object to such expressions as "You are mistaken," because, they 
say, "You are mistaken" means that you are misunderstood, not that you mis- 
understand; and they say the proper form is the active, "You mistake." But 
mistaken in such expressions means taken {led) amiss, led astray. "He was taken 
out of his way." 

EXERCISES. 
1. Point out the object of each transitive verb: 

They met me in the day of success. I see them on their winding 
way. A friend exaggerates a man's virtues; an enemy his crimes. 
He who tells a lie is not sensible of how great a task he undertakes; 
for he must be forced to invent twenty more to maintain one. Among 
the base merit begets envy ; among the noble, emulation. 

[Remark 2.] George desires to learn. James said that he would go. 
Eliza loves to read. I know how you have struggled with misfortune. 
John has discovered whose book that is. You wish that she would stay. 
I prefer working in the garden. 

[Remark 3.] Me he restored to mine office, and him he hanged. 
Thee have I always before my eyes. That man I have never seen 
before. Him who has offended you should punish, not me who am 
innocent. What book did you buy? 

[Remark 4.] Whom have you seen? The lady whom we loved so 
much has left us. The book that I bought is very interesting. The 
bird that we saw on that tree has flown away. I should like to know 
whom he saw. 

[Remark 5.] Here is the book you wished. That is the man you 
admire so much. I wish to see the passage you mentioned. 

[Remark 6.] Let us run the race that is set before us. He lived 
an unhappy life. Who is willing to die the drunkard's death? Sleep 
the sleep that knows not waking. 

[Remark 8, second paragraph.] Often fineness compensated size. — 
Tennyson. The pleasures of life do not compensate the miseries. — Prior. 

What forms can be employed instead of I What is said of the expression " You are 
" I was promised the office " ? i mistaken " ? 



OBJECT OF PEEPOSITION. 



195 



[Kemark 11.] The soldiers proclaimed Otho emperor. The priest 
anointed him king of Israel. Some one calls a blush the color of virtue. 
I consider you my friend. He has appointed me his agent. Make 
God's law the rule of thy life. You have made our home a desolation. 
God created you men, and you have made yourselves beasts. 

[Eemark 12.] Forgive us our trespasses. Give us this day our daily 
bread. I give you dominion over the beasts of the field. John showed 
me a beautiful picture. Tell me a tale of the olden time. Heaven send 
you the choicest blessings. 

2. Correct the errors: 

"Who did he see? He that is idle and mischievous reprove sharply. 
They that honor me I will honor. "Who do you think I saw ? "Who 
did he marry? The man who he raised from obscurity betrayed him. 
He who committed the crime you should punish, not I who am inno- 
cent. Leave Nell and I to toil and work. 

[Eemark 8, first paragraph.] The stable caught on fire. Eesolved, 
That a special committee be appointed to investigate into the truth of 
said rumors. — Resolution adopted by the Legislature of New Jersey. 

[Eemark 12.] She was bought a book. He was shown her letter. 
He was promised the privilege. He was told this fact some time ago. 
I was offered the employment. He Avas offered an opportunity. You 
were paid a high compliment. 

ETJLE YI. 

The object of a preposition must be in the objective case ; 
as, "He spoke to me." 

Remarks.— 1. Any thing performing the office of a noun may he the ohject of 
a preposition. (See p. 121.) 

2. About is the only preposition that at present is followed by the infinitive. 
Formerly other prepositions, especially for, were followed by the infinitive ; as, 
" What went ye out for to see T'— English Bible. " These things may serve for to 
represent. ' ' — Bacon. ' ' Which for to prevent. ' ' — Shakespeare. 

The reason why other prepositions are not followed by the infinitive is that 
they are followed by the gerund, which has the same sense. Spenser's " Each the 
other from to rise restrained "=" Each the other from rising restrained." 

3. "By being ignorant of ivhat greatness is promised thee.'" — Shakespeare. "We 
spoke of why we came." — Tennyson. "The question as to ivhat were the actual first 
utterances. "—Prof. Whitney. These are instances of noun-propositions employed 
for nouns in the objective case. 

4. The prepositions after, before, ere, since, till, until, sometimes take noun- 
propositions as their objects; as, "He came after you had gone;" "He left us 



What is the rule for the object of a prep- 
osition ? 

What preposition has sometimes the in- 
finitive for its object? 



Why are not other prepositions followed 

by the infinitive? 
Give examples of noun-propositions as 

objects of prepositions. 



196 



SYNTAX. 



before you arrived;" " Come down ere my child die;" " I have loved her ever since 
I saw Iter;'' " He will stay till you come;" " He was an industrious boy until he 
met with those idle fellows." 

The prepositions in such constructions are generally regarded as conjunctive 
adverbs; but they are really prepositions followed by noun-propositions instead 
of nouns. "He left us before your arrival;" "He left us before you arrived." 
In the latter sentence be/ore has precisely the same meaning that it has in the 
former. The use of that after these words is readily explained when they are 
regarded as prepositions. " Before that you arrived." * 

Other prepositions have been followed by noun-propositions ; as, " I '11 charm 
his eyes against she do appear."— Shakespeare. " Urijah made it against King Ahaz 
came from Damascus."— English Bible. ''Without you were so simple, non< 
would be."— Shakespeare. Without is not often used in this way by good writers; 
but there is nothing in the nature of things to condemn such use of it 

In and for are frequently followed by noun-propositions ; as, " It is human in 
that it is brought about through that nature by human instrumentality."— Prof. 
Whitney. With in the noun-proposition is always introduced by that; for is used 
either with or without that. In the following passage the first noun-proposition 
is without that, the second has that : 

"I hate him for he is a Christian, 
But more for that in low simplicity 
He lends out money gratis." — Shakespeare. 

Besides is often used before noun-propositions; as, "Besides that he is out of 
money, he is not well enough to go." This word is always a preposition. " He is 
not well enough to go ; besides this, he is out of money." Or with this omitted: 
" He is not well enough to go ; besides, he is out of money." 

5. " This is a dangerous opinion for men to entertain." The object of for is the 
infinitive with its subject. " Each man walks with his head in a cloud of poison- 
ous flies." — Tennyson. The object of with is not head — he does not walk with his 
head — but the whole expression, his head in a cloud of poisonous flies. " With thee 
to smile upon him he is happy." — Sterne. In this sentence the object of with is 
thee to smile upon him. To smile is an adjunct-infinitive. (See p. 221.) 

6. The object of the preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, " This is the man 
[that] I spoke to ;" " Not the form of government [which] he lives under, but the 
church [which] he is a member of." — Carlyle. The object is omitted when it is 
the antecedent to a compound relative pronoun or to the relative pronoun what; 
as, " I will give it to [the person] whoever desires it ;" " He devotes himself heartily 
to [the thing] whatever interests him;" "I furnished him with [the thing or the 
things] what he desired." 

The object is often omitted in certain idiomatic constructions ; as, " He is not 
fit [for men] to converse with [him] ;" "I had no need of any lipht [which] to 
read my guardian's letter by " (or " to read my guardian's letter by [it]") ; " He 
has no home to go to"=" to which he can go ;" " He had no pillow to lay his 
head on "=" on which to lay his head ;" " Virtue is worth dying for [it]." 



-'Bopp {Conjugations-system, p. 82) calls that (German dasz) " the article of the 
verb." It would be more correct to call it the article of the noun-pro podttoaj 
for it does not refer to the verb simply, but to the whole proposition regarded 
as a unit 



What prepositions are mentioned as 
taking noun-propositions as objects? 

What is said of brtirlrx? 

What is the object of for in "This is a dan- 
gerous opinion for men to entertain " ? 



Object of with in " Each man walks with 
his head in a cloud of poisonon- 

The object of with in " With thee to smile 
upon him he is happy" ? 

Give examples of omission of the object 



OBJECT OF PREPOSITION. 



197 



7. The preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, " ' Hers are we ;' [with] one voice 
we cried." — Tennyson. " She rose [to] her height." — Id. 

In such expressions as "despite Duke Humphrey" a preposition is omitted 
before despite and one after it. Generally the prepositions are expressed ; as, " In 
despite of his quick wit." — Shakespeare. " Seized my hand in despite of my efforts 
to the contrary." — Irving. "He will go instead of me." Instead consists of the 
noun stead and the preposition in, written together without any good reason. 
" They excused him because of (by cause of) his illness." Because consists of the 
preposition be, an old form of by, and the noun cause. " He sits astride of the 
fence." Astride consists of the preposition a and the noun stride, and it should 
always be followed by of. (See Remark 2, p. 122.) 

8. The preposition is often improperly omitted ; as, " It is [of] no use to try ;" 
" He was not worthy [of] such honor ;" " He was unworthy [of] the office ;" " We 
banish you [from] our territories;" "The mound [on] the left hand [of] the 
town;" "At either end [of] the mast;" "It was [of] the size of my hand;" "On 
this side [of] the river ;" " He did not refrain [from] expressing himself severely ;" 
" He was prevented [from] speaking to her." 

9. The preposition is always omitted when the relative that is used in such 
expressions as "About the time that his favorite prince left the crown of Poland." 
—Addison. (See Remark 2, p. 161.) 

10. Home and nouns denoting time, space, degree, amount, direction, are 
put in the objective without a preposition; as, "He went home;" "I was there 
five years;" "He was forty miles from home that day;" "The pole is ten feet 
too long;" "This is a great deal better than that;" "A flaming sword which 
turned every way;" " The country was not a cent richer;" " He was several times 
defeated." 

In each of these sentences a preposition is implied ; for what is expressed in 
other languages by cases is expressed in modern English by prepositions; and 
though the preposition is not expressed, there is an idea of it in the mind. In 
went home there is something implied besides going and home. "He went to 
his home;" ' I was there for five years;" "The pole is too long by ten feet;" 
"This is better than that by a great deal;" "A flaming sword which turned 
in every direction;" "The country is not richer by a cent;" "He was defeated 
at several times;" "He was at (a distance of) forty miles from home on that 
day." 

The preposition is frequently omitted before a noun followed by an adjunct, 
especially when this noun is the same as the noun of the adjunct ; as, " They walk 
[with] hand in hand ;" " [For] day after day we stuck ;" " Some, [with] orb in orb, 
around their queen extend;" "[At] time after time I warned him;" "He does 
the same thing [on] one day after another;" "He rushed down the hill [with] 
heels over head;" "He approached the lady [with] hat in hand."* 

11. The objective is used without a preposition after the adjective worth, and 
sometimes after like, unlike, near, next, and nigh; as, "This hat is worth (equal in 
value) [to] five dollars ;" " He is like [to] his father ;" " He sat near [to] me ;" " He 
sat next [to] his grandfather ;" " They are nigh [to] the city." The preposition is 



*In such expressions as "They tore him limb from limb" it is the verb tore 
that affects the construction — they tore him, they tore limb from limb. Compare 
"They tore them one from the other." 



Give examples of the omission of the 

preposition. 
What is said of despite f Of instead ? Of 

because f Of astride? 
Give examples of the improper omission 

of the preposition. 



With is said of that f 

What nouns are mentioned as put in the 

objective without prepositions? 
What is said of the adjective worth? 
What is said of like, unlike, near, next, and 

nigh f 



198 



SYNTAX. 



seldom omitted after next, not very frequently after nigh, more frequently after 
near* 

The preposition is sometimes omitted in one part of a sentence and expressed 
in another; as, " No more like my father than I to Hercules."— Sliakespeare. 

12. The preposition is sometimes placed after the objective; as, " (Jome, walk 
with me the jungle through."— Heber. 

In familiar language the preposition is often placed after a relative or an inter- 
rogative pronoun; as, "Whom did you speak to ?"=" To whom did you speak ?" 
The preposition is always placed after the relative that; as, " This is the man that 
he spoke to." 

13. " The sap will run as long as it freezes nig}Us."—Rev E. Kellogg. " Perhaps 
you '11 like to come here days, with me, and read and sew."— Mrs. Harriet B S 

" Where the sun afternoons used to steal."— Eclectic Fifth Reader. This use of the 
noun without a preposition to denote the time of a repeated action is a disagree- 
able provincial vulgarism. The proper form is the singular with a preposition; 
as, "The sap will run as long as it freezes at night, or in the night, or by night;" 
" Where the sun after noon used to steal." "On a Sunday or in an evening alter the 
hours of business some courts and alleys, which a few hours before had been alive 
with hurrying feet and anxious faces, are as silent us a country churchyard."— 
Macaulay. "By night full often hath she gossiped by my side."— Shakespeare. " He 
plies the duke at morning and at night."— Id. " 'Tis a custom with him i' (tn) the 
afternoon to sleep." — Id. Shakespeare sometimes uses the preposition o' [on or of) 
with the plural; as, "Anthony that revels long o' nights." 

14. Avoid the use of such vulgar expressions as " Where is my book att" The 
answer corresponding to this would be "It is at here," "It is at there," or "It is 
at on the table." 

When where is used for whither (to what place), as in " Where are you going?" 
the preposition to should not be used with it, as in " Where are you going tot" 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the objects of the prepositions: 
John rode on the horse. George is obedient to his parents. The 

book lies before him on the table. You will gain happiness by a life 

of virtue. By close attention to study he became learned. 

[Remark 1.] Thomas is employed in cutting wood. The bars did 

not prevent the prisoner from escaping. By so doing he gained the 

friendship of his former enemy. 

[Remark 2.] The country is about to be ruined. The time was 

about to expire when the man entered. You are about to enter a new 

field of labor. 



* These words, or most of them, when not followed by preposition- i 
are regarded by some as themselves prepositions; the class of preposition- 
looked upon by them as, like Autolycus, "a snapper-up of unconsidered trifles/ 1 
or perhaps as a kind of grammatical waste-basket into which they may throw 
any thing which they do not know what else to do with. Some of their " prepo- 
sitions" maybe compared; as, "Nearest his heart."— Shakespeare. "And earthly 
power doth then show liked God's. "—Id. 



Give examples in which the preposition 

is placed after the object. 
What is said of such expressions as "The 

sap will run as long as it freezes night*"' 7 . 



What <>f such expressions as " Where is 

my book elt " ? 
What of such expressions as "Where are 

you going to " ? 



OBJECT OF PREPOSITION. 199 

[Kemark 3.] He did not decide the question as to who is the 
owner. The result will depend on who is the leader. As to what is 
the usual course in such matters I can give no opinion. 

[Remark 4.] He went away before you came. Be patient till we 
have appeased the multitude. Pause a day or two before you hazard. 
You never saw her since she was deformed. The maiden perished ere 
he came. Besides that it is raining, he could not find the way in such 
a night as this. That this drama has merit is shown in that it has kept 
its place on the boards. 

[Remark 5.] This is a dangerous step for you to take. He walks 
with his hands in his pockets. 

[Remark 6.] This is the man I gave it to. This paper belongs to 
whoever owns the book. It will be delivered to whoever establishes 
his claim. He is ready to give assistance to whoever gives assistance to 
him. I am pleased with what he has done. He is pleased with whatever 
is done to please him. How many people are busy in this world in 
gathering together a handful of thorns to sit upon ! — Jeremy Taylor. 

[Remark 7.] He was rejected because of his impertinence. He 
shall read the letter instead of you. The mischievous monkey is sitting 
astride of the dog. 

Some future time, if so indeed you will, 
You may with those self-styled our lords ally 
Your fortunes. — Tennyson. 

[Remark 10.] He went home. He walked five miles. Two days, 
as many nights, he slept. His spear was sixteen feet long. He is a 
great deal worse. The painter flattered her a little. I will not be a 
step behind. The cheapest of us is ten groats too dear. — Shakespeare. 
I would not care a pin if the other three were in. — Id. It does not 
matter one marble splinter. — Ruskin. 

[Remark 11.] The knife is not worth fifty cents. The good man 
is now near the time of his departure. This book is worth its weight 
in gold. Soldiers in peace are like chimneys in summer. 

[Remark 12.] It is known all the world over. Whom did you give 
the letter to? From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, leaps 
the live thunder. — Byron. They sat in silent watchfulness the sacred 
cypress-tree about. — Whittier. 

2. Correct the errors: 

She spoke to he and I. She spoke to him and I. To who did you 
speak? Who did you speak to? It was divided between he and I. 
It was divided between him and I. Between you and I, he is not 



200 SYNTAX. 

honest. From he that is needy turn not away. It is addressed to you 
and I. She 'd make two of she. 

[Remark 8.] What use is it to try? He is not worthy your pro- 
tection. He lives on this side the mountains? It was the size of a 
piece of chalk. He was prevented crossing the stream. The Jews 
were banished Rome. The tree was three feet diameter. It was nine 
feet circumference. 

[Remark 13.] He plies the duke mornings and nights. He walks 
evenings and rides mornings. The proposed journey to a new world 
kept me awake nights. Mab that plats the manes of horses nights. 
Sleeping within mine orchard, my custom always afternoons. This tin- 
creature frequents my house nights. He sleeps days more than the 
wild-cat. 

[Remark 14.] Where is my hat at? It is at here. Where is the 
rat at? There it is at. Where are my books and slate and cap at? 
Do you ask where they are at? They are at on that table. 

RULE VII. 
A noun annexed to another noun for the sake of explanation 
or emphasis must be in the same case; as, "This book belongs 
to Charles Thomson, him who was with me yesterday." 

Remarks.— 1. The noun annexed is said to be in apposition with the other.* 
The word apposition is derived from the Latin appositus, put to ; the noun in appo- 
sition is put to the other. 

2. The noun annexed must he in the same part of the sentence, subject or 
predicate, with the other noun. 

3. This construction must not be confounded with that of the predicate-nom- 
inative (Rule II), or with that of the "factitive objective" (Rule V, Remark 11). 
A noun in apposition is put in the same part of the sentence with the other noun 
for the purpose of explanation, description, or emphasis ; the predicate-nominative 
is not annexed to the subject, but is put in that part of the sentence by which 
something is affirmed. There may be a predicate-nominative without a subject 
(See Rule II, Remark 3.) The factitive objective is not employed for the purpose 
of explanation, but to complete the idea begun by the verb. " The robbers made 
Valentine captain;" that is, they made captain Valentine, or to coin a word for 
the purpose of illustration, they captainizcd Valentine. It is easy to see that the 
objective captain is more closely connected with the verb made than with the noun 
Valentine; as if the verb and the factitive objective were united to express the 
idea and the other objective made the object of this compound expression. 

,: 'Some say " in apposition to," regarding the derivation of the word apposition; 
but the derivation does not always show what preposition is to be employed after 
a particular word ; averst for instance, signifies turned from, and yet \ 
to. A noun in apposition with another noun has a grammatical connection u-ith it. 

What is the rule for apposition? 
Where is the noun annexed placed ? 



NOUN IN APPOSITION. 



201 



4. A noun is sometimes repeated for the sake of emphasis; as, "Company, 
villainous company, hath been the spoil of me."— Shakespeare. "I saw him before 
me, him who had desolated my peaceful home, him who had destroyed my hap- 
piness." 

Some have asserted that this construction is not apposition ; but as the noun 
is repeated for the sake of emphasis and the word as repeated must be in the same 
case with the word as first used, this is apposition. Compare "I saw him before 
me, the desolator of my peaceful home, the destroyer of my happiness." 

5. A proposition may be in apposition with a noun; as, "This truth once 
known, to bless is to be blessed.'" 

6. A noun may be in apposition with a proposition ; as, "He recovered, a result 
that was not expected." Sometimes the noun refers to a part only of the preceding 
proposition ; as, "He succeeded in dispelling their doubts, an object he had long kept 
steadily in view." In some cases at least it would be better to regard the noun as 
predicate-nominative after some form of the verb be. " He succeeded in dispelling 
their doubts, [which was] an object he had long kept steadily in view." 

7. A plural noun is sometimes put in apposition with two or more nouns pre- 
ceding it ; as, "You and / and honest Casca, we have the falling sickness."— Shake- 
speare. "The study of the ancient writers, the rapid development of the powers of 
the modern languages, the unprecedented activity which was displayed in every 
department of literature, the political state of Europe, all these things gave to the 
teachers of the new theology an advantage." — Macaulay. "Patriotism, justice, gen- 
erosity, all [these things] concurred." 

8. " The men went each [man] his own way ;" " The men went out one [man] 
after another." Such constructions have been regarded by some as cases of appo- 
sition; but the noun understood is really the subject of a verb; as, "The men 
went, each [man went] his own way;" "The men went out, one [man went out] 
after another." 

9. The noun in apposition is sometimes placed before the other ; as, 

"A wandering harper, scorned and poor, 
He begged his bread from door to door." — Scott. 

10. The proper name of an object may be put in apposition with the common 
noun denoting the class; as, "The poet Thomson ;" that is, the poet who is dis- 
tinguished from other poets by the name Thomson. Or the common noun may 
be put in apposition with the proper name : as, " Thomson, the poet ;" that is, the 
Thomson who is distinguished from other Thomsons by being a poet. 

11. The proper names of rivers are generally placed after the common noun 
river; as, "The river Thames " that is, the river distinguished from other rivers 
by the name Thames. But in the United States the proper name is commonly 
placed first when rivers in the United States are spoken of; as, "The Mississippi 
River, the Ohio River, the Hudson River, the Alabama River," as if the proper 
name were an adjective; or perhaps the two words are regarded as one proper 
name, river in this form generally beginning with a capital letter. The same 
persons, however, that say "the Ohio River, the Mississippi River," place river 
before the names of rivers of other countries; as, "The river St. Lawrence, the 
river Amazon, the river Rhine, the river Danube, the river Jordan." 



For what purpose is a noun sometimes 
repeated ? 

Give an example of a proposition in 
apposition with a noun. 

Of a noun in apposition with a proposi- 
tion. 

Of a plural noun in apposition with two 
or more nouns preceding it. 



Of the noun in apposition placed before 

the other. 
Of a proper noun in apposition with a 

common noun. 
Of a common noun in apposition with 

a proper noun. 
How are the proper names of rivers 

commonly placed? 



202 



SYNTAX. 



In " White River, Blue River, Red River, Black River, Salt River, Duck River," 
etc., the words White, Blue, etc. are adjectives denoting the color of the water or 
some other characteristic, and it may be that the existence of so many rivers in the 
United States with names of this kind has led to the placing of other distinctive 
names before the word river. 

12. The proper names of places and months, instead of being put in apposition 
with the common nouns coming before them, are generally joined to these nouns 
by the preposition of; as, " The city of Nashville, the county of Jefferson, the state 
of Alabama." Sometimes the proper name is placed first, and the whole is taken 
as one name ; as, "Jefferson County." In Ireland the proper name of the county 
is put in apposition with county ; as, " County Cork." In England the word shire 
is united with the proper name so as to form a compound word; as, " Yorkshire, 
Devonshire, Worcestershire." 

13. In designating a person we take the Christian (baptismal, given) name and 
the surname as one name ; as, " John Smith." • 

14. One possessive termination answers for more than one noun when the 
noun in apposition is closely connected with the other noun; as, "John the 
Baptist's head." 

EXERCISES. 
1. Point out the nouns in apposition: 
Keligion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity. Have you 
read the life of the poet Thomson? See the beautiful flowers, the 
attendants of spring. 

And in thy right hand lead with thee 

The mountain nymph, sweet Liberty. — Milton. 

The harp, his sole remaining joy, 
Was carried by an orphan boy. — Scott. 

O Music, sphere-descended maid, 

Friend of Pleasure, Wisdom's aid. — Collins. 

On the Grampian hills 
My father feeds his flock; a frugal swain, 
Whose only care was to increase his store 
And keep his only son, myself, at home. — Home. 



* Originally each person had but one name, the name given to him in child- 
hood ; but as it would happen that many persons would have the same name, 
John for instance, it would be found necessary to employ some terms to distinguish 
the different Johns from one another. One, being a smith, would be called John 
the smith (John Smith) ; another, being the son of Richard, would be called John 
Richard's son (John Richardson); another, being of very tall (or perhaps of very 
low) stature, would be called John the long fellow (John Longfellow). In such 
use of the words smith, son, and fellow are in apposition with the noun John. In 
other instances adjectives would, be used; us, Black John (John Black), etc. But 
when it has become fixed in the family the surname is part of the name of the 
person. 



What is said of the names of rivers in 

the United States? 
What is said of the names of places and 

months ? 



How do we take the Christian and the 

surname? 
When may one possessive termination 

answer for more than one noun ? 



ADJECTIVES. 203 

The moonshine, stealing o'er the scene, 
Had blended with the lights of eve; 
And she was there, my hope, my joy, 
My own dear Genevieve. — Coleridge. 
[Kemark 4.] They had in reserve a check which soon brought the 
fiercest and proudest king to reason, the check of physical force. — 
Macaulay. He pledges the dignity of his crown, that crown which 
had been committed to him for the weal of his people. — Id. 
They are the lovely, they in whom unite 
Youth's fleeting charms with virtue's lovely light. 
[Remark 5.] The fact that he was present shows that he is guilty. 
Bulwer denies that Bacon is the author of the saying, "Knowledge 
is power." 

[Remark 7.] Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, 
patriots, all parties concurred. — Hume. 

[Rem. 9.] Poor wanderers of a stormy day, 

From wave to wave we're driven. — Moore. 

2. Correct the errors: 
You think me mad, I who am only useless and idle. "Will you act 
thus toward me, I who have so often assisted you? I saw him before 
me, he who had since our first meeting continually contrived to pass 
some inappreciable slight upon me. — Lever. He is next in succession 
to the Earl of Berkeley, he who has not claimed the title. — R. Shelton 
Mackenzie. Had he really passed and left her, she who had done so 
much for him? — Mrs. Oliphant. 

RULE VIII. 
Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

Remarks.— 1. This rule includes participles, which are verbal adjectives. 

2. The adjective may be joined with the noun in the same part of the propo- 
sition, subject or predicate, in which case the quality is assumed to belong to the 
object ; as, " That happy boy has gained a prize." Or it may be in the predicate, 
serving to complete the idea begun to be expressed by the verb, and thus modify- 
ing the verb to the grammatical subject of which it belongs; as, "That boy is 
happy;" " That boy feels happy;" " That boy has been made happy." In this case 
the quality is asserted to belong to the object. 

3. An adjective may belong to any thing employed as a noun ; an infinitive, 
a gerund, or a noun-proposition ; as, " To return is impossible ;" "Returning would 
be tedious;" "That any one should do so is surprising." 

What is the rule for adjectives? I When is the quality asserted? 

What does this rule include? To what besides nouns may adjectives 

When is the quality assumed ? I belong? 



204: SYNTAX. 

4. The adjective in connection with the infinitive or the gerund is sometimes 
used without reference to any particular object, to denote an abstract idea ; as, 
" To be good is to be happy;" " Virtue consists in being good, not in appearing good." 
Such expressions have an indefinite reference to any or all objects that are capable 
of existing in the states mentioned. 

5. "In mountain scenery the sublime prevails over the beautiful." In such 
expressions the adjective is used in the sense of an abstract noun. There is a 
reference to some very general idea, like that expressed by quality, characteristic, 
or some term more general stilL 

6. The noun is often omitted ; as, " The wicked [persons] persecute the good 
[persons] ;" " Some [books] of these books are worthless ;" "Judas was one of the 
twelve [apostles];" "Each [person] has his faults;" "He takes it for [a] granted 
[thing] ;" " He gave it up for [a] lost [thing] ;" " Make [yourself] sure of victory ;" 
" He made [a] light [matter] of the whole thing;" " This plant is one* [plant] that 
grows rapidly ;" " His end was that* [end] of a good man." (See page 45, second 
paragraph.) "And, [which is] contrary to the king, his crown, and dignity, thou 
hast built a paper-mill."— Shakespeare. 

It is not correct to say that the adjective in such expressions as " The wise are 
not thus deceived " is used as a noun. The adjective is still an adjective and may 
be modified by adverbs ; as, " The truly wise are not thus deceived ;" " The madly 
brave are fools." 

7. Participles sometimes belong to some general word which is omitted; as, 
" [We, men, people] granting this to be true, what is the inference?" (See Rule 
HI, Remark 2, page 184.) 

8. The adjective is generally placed before the noun; but there are some 
adjectives whose proper place is after the noun; as, "Pride alone urges him on." 
The adjective enough should never be placed before the noun; say "money 
enough," not "enough. money." 

9. An adjective modified by an adjunct, an infinitive, or a proposition is placed 
after the noun ; as, "A woman devoted to fashion ;" "A man worthy to be admired ;" 
"A person conscious that he is in fault." 

10. The adjective sometimes denotes what the object is made to be, in fact or 
in thought, by the action expressed by the verb, and then the adjective is placed 
after the noun; as, "This made the land fertile;" "She boiled the egg hard;" 
" He calls that man happy." The adjective thus employed is sometimes called the 
"factitive adjective." (Compare " factitive objective." Rule V, Remark 11.) If 
the active form is changed to the passive, the adjective becomes a predicate- 
adjective; as, "The land was made fertile;" "The egg was boiled hard." 

11. In such names as "Henry the First," "Alfred the Great," "Charles the 
Bold," " Ethelred the Unready," the adjective part of the name is placed after the 
noun. In these names the adjective may be considered as belonging to the pre- 
ceding noun, and the adjective is sometimes placed before the noun, like an ordi- 
nary adjective ; as, "The third Edward."— Shakespeare. "The first Henry."— 
Hume. "The fourth Edward."— Waller. But sometimes the construction implies 

• One and that are forms used only when the nouns are omitted ; when the 
nouns are expressed a and the must be used. 



What is said of such expressions as " To 

be good is to be happy " ? 
Of such expressions as " The sublime 

prevails over the beautiful " ? 
Give some examples in which the noun 

is omitted. 
In "Granting this to be true" to what 

does the participle granting belong? 



Where should the adjective enough al- 
ways be placed ? 

Where should the adjective be placed 
when modified by an adjunct, etc? 

What is said of the factitive adjective? 

What is said of " Henry the First," etc? 

What is said of "The third Edward," 
etc? 



ADJECTIVES. 205 

that the adjective belongs to a noun in apposition with the preceding noun ; as, 
"Henry of that name the sixth [king]." — Shakespeare. 

12. Adjectives should not be so arranged as to destroy or obscure the meaning. 
"Cut off from the means of return, the sultan issued a declaration of war against 
Napoleon."— Appkton's Encyclopedia. It was Napoleon that was cut off, but the 
construction represents the sultan as the person that was cut off. "It is virtue 
which alone ennobles man." The writer meant to say that it is virtue alone that 
ennobles man. 

13. When a limiting and a qualifying adjective belong to the same noun the 
limiting adjective is generally placed before the qualifying adjective; as, "The 
seven wise men," "These great men," "These two excellent managers," "The three 
foremost men of the time," "The two greatest men of the day," "The two best books," 
"The seven uppermost ribs," " The two first and the three last stanzas." * 

The reason for this order is that the qualifying adjective and the noun express 
one complex idea, and the limiting adjective belongs to the complex expression, 
not to the noun merely. " The seven wise men "=" The seven sages." 

*Some persons say " the first two," contending that there can be but one first, 
though they themselves constantly use such expressions as, " the first hours of the 
day," "his first efforts,' 1 " the first years of his life." It is true that in numbering, 
the first being followed by the second, there can be but one first ; but first in the 
ordinary use of the word means merely " before all others of the same kind," and 
there may be several before all the others. Sallust says that Jugurtha was the 
first or among the first to strike the lion and other wild beasts ; that is, he was 
before all the others or among those that were before all the others. " These ten 
soldiers were among the first to enter the city." Besides the ten soldiers there 
were several others that were first. Similar remarks may be made about last, next, 
and other superlatives. The correct arrangement is shown in the following pas- 
sages: "The two first and the four last."— Scott. " The two first verses."— Id. "The 
three first monarchies of the world." — Raleigh. "The two first Georges." — Jeffrey. 
"The seven first centuries." — Gibbon, "The three first years of his reign."— la. 
"The three first stanzas." — Addison. "The twelve last are to my purpose." — Id. 
"The four first acts already passed."— Bishop Berkeley. "The four first acts." — 
Sheridan. ' ' These two last groups. ' '—Prof. Whitney. "The two first requisitions. ' '— 
Thomas Hughes. " The two last sentences." — Fitzedward Hall. " The two first par- 
liaments of William." — Macaulay. "Her six first French kings." — Id. "The five 
last scenes." — Moore. "The two first sheets of his poem." — Sydney Smith. "The 
two first letters of the Gothic aya." — Bopp. "The two first persons of the Greek 
dual."— Id. "The three first days of their sitting.''— Swift. "The two last house- 
keepers. ' '—Thaclceray. ' ' The three first acts of his Hamlet. ' '—Dickens. ' ' The four 
greatest names in English poetry are almost the four first we come to."— Hazlitt, 
" The two first years." — Charles Kingsley. " The four first." — Hood. " The two first." 
— Izaak Walton. "A breach of the four first commandments of the decalogue." — 
Wm. CuUen Bryant. "The five first lines of the Iliad." — Fielding. "The two last 
may enter Carleton or any other house, and the two first are limited to the opera." 
— Byron. "The three first generations." — E. Everett. "The tiro next lines in that 
ode." — Johnson. " Procure a transcript of the ten or twenty first lines." — Id. "The 
two first days."— Irving. "The two first years." — Bancroft. " The four first centu- 
ries." — Prescott. " The three first of his longer poems." — Southey. 

"Forma (first) and othre (second, other)," says Prof. March, "are sometimes 
used in the plural describing a class, and are then arranged as descriptives [quali- 
fying adjectives following limiting adjectives] : tha threo forman gebedu, the three 
first prayers; twegen othre manfulle, two other malefactors. So in other languages: 
hepta tas eschatas, Latin, septem novissimas, the seven last (plagues) {English Bible, 
Rev. xv, 1 ; xxi, 9) : I read to Albert the three first cantos of the Lay of the Last 
Minstrel {Queen Victoria, Life in tlie Highlands, p. 46) ; our tivo eldest children {Some, 
76, 234) ; two other keepers (Same, 70) ; in den seclis ersten Conjugationen, in the six 
first conjugations (J. Grimm, D. G., I, 1038); les onze premiers chapitres, the eleven 
first chapters {Renan, Hist. Sem. Lang., I, 27) ; las dos primeras jjartes, the hco first 
parts (Don Carlos, quoted in Motley, R. D. R., Ill, 193) ; las cuatro primeras, the four 
first {Don Quixote, 352) ; i died primi libri, the ten first books (Diez, 3, 436)."— Anglo- 
Saxon Grammar, 217. 

What caution concerning the arrange- I The place of a limiting and a qualifying 
ment of adjectives? | adjective belonging to the same noun ? 



206 SYNTAX. 

" The first two " is correct only when we speak of a number of objects arranged 
in twos, so that after the first two we have a second two, etc. 

If so, as, too, how, or however preeedes, the limiting adjective an (a) is placed 
after the qualifying adjective ; as, "So great a wonder," "As wise a man," "Too 
heavy a burden," " How wonderful an achievement," " However glorious a day." 

14. The comparative degree presents the objects compared as being in different 
classes or divisions and is followed by than; as, "The whale is larger than the 
elephant." The whale is not an elephant. 

The superlative degree presents the objects compared as being in the amne 
class or division and is followed by of; as, " The whale is the largest of animals." 
The whale is an animal. 

It would not be correct to say, " Solomon was wiser than any of the Hebrew 
kings," because Solomon was one of the Hebrew kings. Nor would it be correct 
to say, "Solomon was the wisest of the Roman kings," because Solomon was not 
one of the Roman kings. It would not be correct to say that Eve was the fairest 
of her daughters, because that would represent her as one of her own daughters. 
Nor would it be correct to say that Eve was fairer than any woman, because that 
would be equivalent to saying that she was not a woman.* 

But we may say, " Eve was fairer than any of her daughters," because Eve and 
her daughters are thus placed in two different divisions. We may say, "Eve was 
the fairest of women," because Eve is thus placed in the class of women. Or we 
may say, " Eve was fairer than any other woman," the word other serving to create 
two divisions. Eve was not one of the other women. 

"Montesquieu enjoys, perhaps, a wider celebrity than any political writer of 
modern Europe."— Macaulay. Montesquieu being one of the political writers of 
modern Europe, the adjective other should have been employed — " than any other 
political writer of modern Europe." 

"The appearance of Mr. Crummies was more striking than that of any mem- 
ber of his party." — Dickens. Was Mr. Crummies a member of the party? If so, 
other should have followed any. "A fondness for show is of all other follies the 
most vain." Here other is incorrectly used. 

Sometimes the separation may be indicated by other words. " This work 
commanded much more attention, as a pronouncing dictionary, than any other 
of the kind that preceded it."— Worcester. "This work" could not be one of 
"those that preceded it," and other is incorrectly used. 

15. When two objects of the same class or division are compared the compara- 
tive is used like the superlative, being followed by of; as, " He is the taller of the 
two brothers." 

*"Yet Milton writes, 

Adam the goodliest man of men since born 
His sons; the fairest of her daughters, Eve. 
Adam was not one of his own sons, nor one 'of men since born.' Eve was not 
one of her own daughters. The phrase may be admired, but is scarcely to be imi- 
tated. Milton, however, should not be censured for catching a grace beyond the 
reach of rules."— Holnifs's English Grammar, p. 104. 

Milton, instead of employing pure idiomatic English to express his Idea, chose 
to imitate a form he had met with in Greek, and thus with his Greek lie made 
simply an English bull. " Little Dominic, have vou anv brothers?" " No; I wish 
I had, for perhaps they would be kind to me; but I have no brothers but myself." 
Little Dominic had caught "a grace beyond the reach of rules;" but the poor 
little fellow had no grammarian to tell him what he had done. 



Should we say "the two first stanzas" 

or " the first two stanzas " ? 
When is it correct to say " the first two " ? 
What is said of " so great a wonder," etc? 
How does the comparative degree pre- 



The superlative d< 

What is the fault in "Montesquieu en- 
joys a wider celebrity than any polit- 
ical writer of modern Europe? 

When two objectSOf the same class are 



sent the objects compared? compared how is the compara! 



ADJECTIVES. 



207 



This being a violation of the principle that the comparative presents the objects 
compared in different classes or divisions, the superlative is often, when two objects 
of the same class are compared, used in the same way in which it is used when 
more than two objects are compared ; as, " The strangest of the two."— Hawthorne. 
" The most agreeable of the two."— Cowper. " The least qualified candidate of the 
two."— Dickens. "Which of these two causes was most active?"— G. P. Marsh. 
"The most lifelike of the two."— Merivale. " Of the two elements of a compound 
sentence which is the most important?"— Latham. "She asked him whether his 
queen or she had the finest hair ; she even inquired which of them he esteemed 
the finest person."— Hume. "The most fatigued of the two."— Hood. "The least 
serious of the two."— Wilkie Collins. " The least of two evils."— Southey. " Whether 
his cabinet or that of Mynheer Sloane at London was the most valuable."— Smollett. 
"Of these two forms we should adopt that which will render the sentence the 
most perspicuous and agreeable."— Goold Brown. " The services of the lawyer are 
the most expensive and least useful of the two."— Scott. " We say to ride a horse and 
to ride on a horse. The first is, we believe, the most usual construction."— Mulligan. 
*' The eldest of his two sons."— Thackeray. " The auditory of Mr. Travers was far 
the most numerous [compared with that of Hooker]."— Fuller. "Of two usances 
the merriest was put down." — Shakespeare. 

" Wherever God erects a house of prayer, 
The devil always builds a chapel there; 
And 'twill be found, upon examination, 
The latter has the largest congregation." — Defoe.* 

16. Double comparatives and superlatives, such as more wiser, most wisest, 
formerly common, are now avoided. But lesser is used by good writers ; as, " The 
Lesser Asia." 

17. Each, every, either, and neither require verbs and nouns (including pronouns) 
connected with them to be of the third person singular; "Neither [boy] of them 
is a bad boy;" "Each [boy] has studied his lesson;" "Either [person] of you is 
competent;" "Neither [person] of us was out of his seat." 

So even when two or more objects are mentioned ; as, " Each book and each 
paper is kept in the place assigned to that book and that paper;" "Every book 
and paper is kept in the place assigned to it." 

Such expressions as "every three weeks" are correct, because the whole time 
is taken as one thing. 

No joined to two or more singular nouns requires verbs and nouns to be 
singular; as, "No book and no paper is out of its place." 

The following passages are incorrect: "Each person drawing in their breath 
hard."— Scott. Their should be his. "Each knew the situation of their own 



*The two forms are sometimes used indiscriminately in the same passage ; as, 
" Hamish, the elder of these youths, was the tallest by a head. "--Scott. "Which 
was the greatest innovator, which was the more important personage in man's his- 
tory, he who first led armies over the Alps and gained the victories of Cannae and 
Thrasymene or the nameless boor who first hammered out for himself an iron 
spade T'—Carlyle. 

"Between two hawks, which flies the higher pitch ; 

Between two dogs, Avhich hath the deeper mouth ; 

Between two blades, which bears the better temper ; 

Between two horses, which doth bear him best; 

Between two girls, which hath the merriest eye.' ' — Shakespeare. 



Is the superlative ever used in such 

cases? 
What is said of double comparatives 

and superlatives? 
What exception? 



What is said of the person and number 
of verbs and nouns connected with 
eac\ every, either, neither f 

What is said of no joined to two or more 
singular nouns ? 



208 



SYNTAX. 



bosom, and could not but guess at that of the other."— Scott. A man and a 
woman being referred to in the passage, his can not be used instead of their. The 
passage may be thus corrected: "Both knew the situation of their own bosoms, 
and each could not but guess at the situation of the other." 

18. By some it is asserted that the expression each other refers to two objects 
only and one another to more than two. But there is no good authority fur 
restrictions ; each other and one another are applied to either two or more. Johnson 
says, " To each the correspondent is other, whether it be used of two or of a greater 
number." Webster says of each, "Denoting one of the two or more individuals 
composing the whole, considered separately from the rest. To each corresponds 
other." "Two buckets filling one another. "Shakespeare. " Your brother and my 
sister no sooner sighed but they asked one another the reason." — Id. In each of 
these passages one another is applied to two. Worcester says of one anotfier, " Two 
persons or things taken reciprocally." In the implied restriction he is not cor- 
rect. "A new commandment I give unto you, that ye love one another." — English 
Bible. "The big round tears coursed one another down his innocent nose." — 
Shakespeare. Each other is applied to more than two in the following passages: 
"The cannibals that each other eat."— Shakespeare. "The sonnes and the daugh- 
ters shall rebel ayenst father and mother, and kinred ayenst kinred. and chiden 
and despisen eche other."— Chaucer. "The thieves (Falstaff and his companions) 
are scattered and possessed with fear so strongly that they dare not meet each 

other. ' '—Shakespeare. 

19. This and that belong to singular nouns ; these and those to plural nouns ; as, 
•'This apple, these apples; that kind, those kinds." 

20. When this (plur. these) and that (plur. those) refer to objects previously 
mentioned this refers to the last-mentioned, as being nearer than the other; as, 
" Virtue and vice are direct opposites ; that ennobles the mind, this debases it." 

"Farewell my friends! farewell my foes! 
My peace with these, my love with those."— Burns. 

21. Avoid such vulgarisms as " this here book," " that there hat," "them books," 
"them there hats." 

22. When two or more objects are to be distinguished from each other by 
emphasis or otherwise the adjective expressing a quality or limitation common 
to them must be repeated ; as, " To make a distinction between a man and a 
beast;" "The figurative and the literal sense are jumbled together;" "Both the 
man and the woman were acquitted;" "Neither the man nor the woman was 
found guilty;" "Either the father or the son must suffer." 

This principle is violated in the following passages: "With this simple talk 
the old and young gentleman beguiled their way."— Thackeray. " Case is cither 
the form or position of a noun."— Hiley's English Grammar. "The law is equal 
between the prosecutor and defendant."— Judge Brrflar. " It embraces a portion 
both of the past and the future."— Pinneo's English Grammar. " The Eclogues of 
Virgil and Odes of Horace."— Scott. "The difference between the adjective and 
adverb."— Mulligan. " Charlie also bought a coarse and fine saw."—/ 

23. An adjective with its noun is sometimes improperly used for a compound 
noun; as, "Musical printer" instead of "music printer," "photographical album" 
instead of " photograph-album." One may be a music printer who is not musical 



Is there any difference in application be- 
tween each other and one another* 

To what do this and that belong? These 
and those f 

Explain " to make a distinction between 
a man and a beast" 



Mention some violations. 

What vulgarisms are mentioned? 

For what is an adjective with its noun 

sometimes improperly used? 
Give some examples of this improper 

usage. 



ADJECTIVES. 209 

in any sense ; a photograph-album is an album for containing photographs, and 
is not at all photographical. 

24. The preposition of is sometimes improperly used between all and its noun 
or between both and its noun ; as, "All of his men were taken prisoners ;" "Both 
of the apples were ripe." Say " all his men," " both the apples." 

Of is used between all or both and a pronoun; as, "All of them were taken 
prisoners ;" " Both of them were taken prisoners." Better, " They were all taken 
prisoners ;" " They were both taken prisoners." 

25. ''Number one," "number two," etc., are correct expressions, because one, 
two, etc., are spoken of merely as numbers; but "part one," "book two," "hymn 
fifty," are modern absurdities. "Canto first."— Wordsworth. "Act second."— 
Goldsmith. "Canto fourth."— Scott. "Book the second."— Dickens. 

26. When two or more adjectives belong to the same noun the article is placed 
before the first only ; as, " He is a good and great man." But for the sake of em- 
phasis the article may be repeated, if no ambiguity is caused by the repetition ; as, 

"A sadder and a wiser man 
He rose the morrow morn." — Coleridge. 

27. Generally the repetition of the article indicates that the adjectives belong 
to different nouns, all but the last being understood ; as, " He has a white and a 
black horse " (a white horse and a black horse). By a " white and black horse " 
is meant but one horse. 

Instead of repeating the article we may in some instances put the noun in 
the plural; as, "The north and south poles," "the Old and New Testaments." 
There is no ambiguity here, for we know that there are only two poles and two 
Testaments; but "but the black and white horses" may mean several horses, 
and the expression is not equivalent to " the black and the white horse." 

We may say " the north and the south pole " or " the north and south poles," 
but not " the north and south pole " nor " the north and the south poles." It is 
correct to say "the first and second editions of the work," because the two 
editions are taken together ; but it is incorrect to say " the first or second editions," 
because one or the other edition is meant, and not both. 

With other limiting words there is the same principle of arrangement. " On 
that day he made his first and last will " (one will). " I compared his first and 
his last will " or " his first and last wills " (more than one). 

Similar to " the north and south poles " are such expressions as " Walnut and 
Chestnut streets." 

28. Before such complimentary epithets as honorable and reverend and the 
abbreviations of them the should be expressed ; as, "A speech was made by the 
Hon. John Smith;" not "by Hon. John Smith." 

29. A title mentioned merely as a title or a word mentioned merely as a word 
should not have an (a) before it; as, "He claimed the title of duke;" "He was 
fond of using the word individual for person." 

30. When two nouns are used in comparing two qualities in the same object 
an (a) should not be placed before the second noun ; as, " He is a better poet than 
historian (better in poetry than in history)." 



What is said of " all of his men," " both 

of the apples"? 
What of " part one," " book two," etc? 
When two or more adjectives belong to 

the same noun where is the article 

placed? 
Explain "He has a white and a black 

horse." " He has a white and black 



What may in some instances be done in- 
stead of repeating the article ? 

What is said of such expressions as "A 
speech was made bv the Hon. John 
Smith " ? Of " He claimed the title of 
duke"? 

Of such expressions as "He is a better 
poet than historian " ? 



18 



210 



SYNTAX. 



31. A word connected with a word as another name for the object should not 
have an article before it; as, " The trachea, or windpipe." 

32. The adjective some is often placed before numerals to make the number 
less definite; as, " This happened some fifty years ago." 

33. The adjective some should not be used for the adverb somewhat; as, "He 
is some better " instead of " He is somewhat better." 

34. With adjectives denoting more than one plural nouns should be used ; as 
"It weighed twenty pounds;" not "twenty pound." 

35. A difficulty is sometimes felt in deciding whether the adjective or the 
adverb should follow certain verbs. 

If quality is to be expressed, the adjective should be employed ; if manner, the 
adverb. 

With the verb to be or verbs denoting coming to be it is quality that is to be 
expressed, and the adjective must be employed ; as, " He is cautious ;" " He became 
(came to be) cautious :" " He grows (is coming to be) cautious;" " She turned pale." 

All verbs in which the idea of being prevails must have the adjective. 

If to be may be inserted after the verb, the adjective should be used ; as, " She 
appears [to be] happy;" " I shall continue [to be] thankful." 

If the verb denotes an impression made on any of the senses, the adjective 
should be used ; as, " He looks sad " (is sad to the eye) ; " The rose smells sweet " (is 
sweet to the smell) ; " This apple tastes bitter " (is bitter to the taste) ; " That music 
sounds sweet" (is sweet to the ear) ; " This board feels smooth " (is smooth to the 
touch). In each of these passages the verb denotes being as perceived by the sense 
indicated, and it is quality that is to be expressed, not manner. 

When the verb denotes activity of the organ of sense the adverb must be used, 
manner being that which is to be expressed ; as, " She looks tenderly (in a tender 
manner) at him ;" " He touched the anaconda cautiously " (in a cautious manner); 
" He felt it carefully." 

It is correct to say, "The moon shines bright," the object being to express 
what the moon is; but sometimes the adverb is used with such verbs as shine, the 
object then being to denote in tchat manner the action is performed; as, "The 
moon shone gloriously into the room." 

Verbs denoting being in particular states or postures require adjectives; as, 
"The three stood (were) calm and silent."— Macau lay. " Many a nobleman lies (is) 
stark and stiff. ''—Shakespeare. " Time hangs (is) heavy in the hall."— Scott. " The 
uneasiness that sits (is) so heavy upon us."— Locke. 

"John arrived safe." The adjective is correctly used here, because the inten- 
tion is to express the state in which John was when he arrived, not the manner of 
his arrival. 

"I feel badly," an expression employed to declare that the speaker feels 
unwell, indisposed, uncomfortable, or something of the kind, really exj 
that the speaker is dissatisfied with the manner in which he performs the act of 
feeling. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Point out the adjectives and the nouns to which they belong: 
A bright day followed a gloomy night. She had auburn hair, blue 
eyes, a fair complexion, white teeth, and rosy lips. He was a short, 



What is said of such expressions as "the 
trachea, or windpipe"? Of such as 
" some fifty years ago " ? 

What caution concerning the use of 
some f 



What is said of such expressions as 

" twenty pound"? 
What principle decides whether we 

should use an adjective <>r an adverb? 
Is it correct to say "John arrived safely?" 



ADJECTIVES. 211 

square-built old fellow, with thick bushy hair and a grizzled beard. — 
Irving. Her sunny locks hang on her temples like a golden fleece. — 
Shakespeare. Bear not along the clogging burden of a guilty soul. — Id. 

[Kemark 1.] I saw a man cutting wood. The young maiden was 
seen standing on the shore, exposed to the merciless winds, and extend- 
ing her hands toward heaven. Having lost his wealth, he was deserted 
by his boon companions. He is writing %, letter. 

They fell into a discussion concerning courts-martial. He was an 
excellent critic regarding all artists save one. There is but one opinion 
respecting his conduct. He made himself acquainted with every thing 
relating to this question. He made himself acquainted with every 
thing touching this question. He acted with zeal according to his 
knowledge. He acted with zeal excelling his knowledge. Let your « 
zeal be according to knowledge. "We may soon our satisfaction have 
touching this point. — Shakespeare. He asked a hundred questions 
regarding all things round about him. — Thackeray. Concerning all 
the other provinces of the Western Empire we have continuous 
information. — Macaulay. Touching the nature of these institutions 
there has been much dishonest and acrimonious controversy. — Id. 

[Remark 3.] To err is human, to forgive divine. Lying is base. 
That he should so far forget himself is wonderful. 

[Kemark 4.] To be idle is to be vicious. Appearing good is not 
always being good. 

[Remark 5.] This work treats of the true, the beautiful, and the good. 

[Remark 6.] The rich are not always happy. The truly brave are 
not rash. Some of these girls are careless. The storm detained many 
from the meeting. The day was one of happiness. The life of this 
nobleman was that of a madman. 

[Remark 7.] Viewing the matter in this light, his conduct is not 
surprising. Excepting a few books, every thing in the house was 
destroyed. There was a great deal of confusion and, speaking gener- 
ally, a great deal of straw every where. Respecting what a rancorous 
mind he bears, it is not policy he should come near your person. — 
Shakespeare. 

[Remark 9.] He was a ruler sagacious in counsel and deliberate 
in action. 

[Remark 10.] This occurrence made him happy. Boiling turned 

the lobster red. 

2. Correct the errors: 

He has not enough money to pay for his dinner. I have enough 

bread for us all. 



212 SYNTAX. 

[Remark 12.] For them is reserved that last and decisive stage of 
the great conflict between man and nature, in which, advancing from 
success to success, fresh trophies will be constantly won, every struggle 
will issue in a conquest, and every battle end in a victory. — Buckle* 
It is money that the miser alone regards. It is by mercy that he can 
alone be saved. 

[Remark 13.] The greatest two men of the time. The young two 
men met. These most worthy two persons. Those indefatigable two 
intriguers. The chief two men. The wisest seven men. The largest 
two rivers. Under the last two designations. Louis caused the la>t 
two words to be omitted. The first three sultans. The last two of 
these acts. The former seven volumes of the Spectator. The next 
two lines in that ode. The last two chapters. 

[Remark 14.] Isabella was the cause of more misery in both coun- 
tries than any woman who ever lived. — White's History of France. 
The landlord was thought to see further and deeper into things than 
any man in the parish. — Fielding. [The landlord belonged to the 
parish.] The tragedy of Douglas is more popular than any tragedy 
in the English language. — Dr. A. Carlyle. In plot, character, and 
incident, in dialogue, humor, and wit, "The School for Scandal" is 
acknowledged to surpass any comedy of modern times. — Chambers. 
It is a stain the most difficult of all others to expunge. Of all other 
poets Shakespeare is the greatest. 

[Remark 16.] A more healthier place can not be found. The 
nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. 

[Remark 17.] Let each of them be heard in their turn. Each of 
you are entitled to your share. Neither of us have had our portion. 
Every one of us have recited our lessons. Neither of these men seem 
to have any idea that their opinions may be wrong. If either of these 
two qualities are wanting, the language is imperfect. Neither of us 
are persons likely to postpone such a meeting. Neither of them are 
remarkable for precision. — Blair. Each of the ladies, like two excellent 
actresses, were perfect in their parts. — Scott. The two sisters were 
extremely different, though each had their admirers.— Id. Neither of 
which are taken into account. — Dean Alford. 

[Remark 19.] I do not like those kind of men. "Who broke that 
tongs? Will you have some of these molasses? We can easily manage 
these sort of things. 

*To what noun does advancing belong? The arrangement represents it as 
belonging to trophies. The structure of the sentence must be changed—" in which, 
advancing from success to success, man will constantly win fresh trophies, every 
struggle issuing in a conquest, and every buttle ending in a victory.'" 



VERB AND SUBJECT. 213 

[Kemark 21.] This here apple is green, and that there is rotten. 
I have never read them books. Them men spoke to me. 

[Remark 22.] / has a long and short sound. The large and small 
boy went home. Death comes to both the good and bad. Can you 
tell the difference between a tree and shrub? 

[Remark 23.] He was appointed musical director. She has a fine 
photographical case. 

[Remark 24.] All of these books are interesting. I have no hesi- 
tation in saying that all of these forms are incorrect. — Fitzedward Hall. 
Nearly all of these sentences. — KerVs Common-school Grammar. Both 
of the boys were punished. 

[Remark 27.] The north and south pole. The Old and the New 
Testaments. The longest and shortest day of the year. 

[Remark 28.] I heard Rev. Mr. Anderson preach to-day. Hon. 
Ephraim Jones presided at the meeting. 

[Remark 29.] He bore the title of a marquis. The word party for 
a man occurs in Shakespeare. — Dean Alford. 

[Remark 30.] He writes poetry as well as criticisms, but he is a 
better critic than a poet. 

[Remark 33.] This lesson is some easier than that. 

[Remark 34.] The pole is twelve foot long. I bought five bushel 
of wheat. 

[Remark 35.] It made me mad to see him shine so briskly and 
smell so sweetly. That which we call a rose by any other name would 
smell as sweetly. She looks beautifully in that dress. I ate some 
hominy at dinner, and I have felt very badly ever since. He has 
arrived safely at home. 

RULE IX. 

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person ; 
as, "I love, thou loved, he loves, we love, you love, they love." 

Remarks.— 1. In some languages there is a distinct form for each person ; as 
in Latin, amo, amas, amat, amamus, amatis, amant. But the English verb has no 
personal termination hut est for the second person singular and s for the third 
person singular of the present tense and st for the second person singular of the 
past tense ; as, " Thou lovest, he loves, thou lovedsZ. (See Remark 1, p. 83.) May, 
can, might, could, would, should have no variation except st for the second person 
singular ; as, mayst, canst. "Shall and will have only t for the second person singular, 
shalt, wilt. The verb have has hast, contracted from havest, and has, contracted from 
haves. Do has dost, contracted from doest. 

The verb be has a greater number of forms ; as, present tense, singular, am, art, 
is, plural, are; past tense, was, wast {wert), was, plural were. 

What is the rule for the agreement of a verb? 



214 SYNTAX. 

2. The verb need when followed by an infinitive is generally used without the 
s of the third person singular; as, " He need not be so hasty." It sometimes takes 
the s; as, "She needs not [make a doubt of your valor] when she knows it cow- 
ardice. " — Shakespeare. 

Dare when followed by the infinitive is sometimes used without the *; as, 
"Who dare scarce show his head on the Rialto."— Shakespeare. More frequently 
it takes the s; as, "No spirit dares stir abroad."— Stiakespeare. "Goodness dares 
not check thee."— Id. "Who dares receive it other?"— Id. 

3. In ordinary language the chief practical points that present themselves are 
whether we are to use in the third person is or arc, was or were, has or have, the 
singular form in s or the plural form without s. 

4. When an infinitive, a gerund, or a noun-proposition is the subject (see pp. 
149, 150) the verb must necessarily be of the third person singular; as, "To study 
pleases him." 

5. An adjunct of the subject should not affect the form of the verb ; as, " The 
number of oysters increases," not increase; "The ship with all the crew was lost," 
not were. In this sentence there is but one nominative, ship, which is singular 
and requires a singular verb. Some writers use the plural verb in such cases, but 
they should not be imitated. In most cases it is better to use and with a plural 
verb. 

"Twice one is two," not "Twice one are two," is the correct form. The 
number one taken twice is equal to two. "Three times two is six" means that 
the abstract number two taken three times is equal to six. 

Some would use the singular when two or more numbers are added ; as, " Two 
and three is equal to five ;" but as there are two or more words connected by and, 
the plural form seems to be required, according to Remark 6. 

6. Two or more singular nouns connected by and expressed or understood, 
being equivalent to a plural noun, take a plural verb; as, "James and Edward 
are studious." 

The same principle applies to nouns (including pronouns) referring to the con- 
nected nouns; as, "James and Edward are studious boys, and they will learn." 
And in general whatever controls the number of the verb controls the number 
of the noun referring to the subject. 

"The collective disposition and ability of a community, working itself out 
under the guidance of circumstances, determines the phonetic form."— Whitney. 
Disposition and ability are two things, not one thing. 

7. When two or more nouns are connected to denote one whole the verb must 
be singular; as, "A hue and cry was raised;" "Bread and butter is excellent 
food." Some write words connected in this way as one compound word; as 
"hue-and-cry." 

8. When each, every, or no is used with singular nominatives connected by and 
the verb (and noun) must be singular, the objects being taken separately (one by 
one) ; as, " Each book and paper is kept in its place ;" " Every man, woman, and 
child was lost;" "No book and no paper is out of its place." 

9. When subjects connected by and follow the verb the verb is sometimes put 
in the singular number, if the subject next to it is singular; as, "Thine is the 
kingdom and the power and the glory ;" " The scene was a Btable, wherein was an 

What is said of need? Of daref I Explain "James and Edward are studi- 

What are the chief practical points? ous bovs." 

When an infinitive, a gerund, or a noun- Explain ""A hue and cry was raised." 
proposition is the subject what must „ ..,.., , , ' 
be the number and person of the verb? Explain ' Each book and paper is kept 

What is said of the ellect of an adjunct? m wp***," etc. 

Should we say, "Twice one is two" or , Explain "Thine is the kingdom and the 
" Twice one are two " ? | power and the glory." 



VERB AND SUBJECT. 215 

ox, an ass, the cradle, the virgin, the babe, Joseph, shepherds, and angels." — Locke. 
"There was such peace and beauty in the scene." — Dickens. In such cases the 
speaker's attention seems to be fixed on each object in succession, and not on all 
the objects at once. The verb is understood with all the subjects but the first. 

10. And may sometimes seem to connect nouns when it really connects propo- 
sitions; as, "John, and James also, is here "=" John is here, and James also is 
here;" "John, and James too, is here"="John is here, and James too is here;" 
"John, and not James, is here "="John is here, and James is not here." In each 
of these examples John is the subject of is expressed, and James is the subject of 
is understood. The construction is the same when and is omitted ; as, "John, not 
James, is here "=" John is here, James is not here." 

Akin to these constructions are such as "John, but not James, is here "="John 
is here, but James is not here ;" "John, as well as James, is here "="John is here 
as well (truly) as James is here ;" " Pompey, as well as Csesar, was a great general." 

" Here the boys, and especially Charlie, was very much interested in the tools." 
The writer meant that the boys were very much interested, and he should have 
used were, "and especially Charlie " forming part of another proposition. 

If one of two subjects between which and is placed has a negative joined 
with it, it is the subject of a verb understood, the other noun being the subject of 
the verb expressed; as, "Virtue, and not riches, constitutes the happiness of a 
nation." Here virtue is the subject of constitutes, and riches is the subject of con- 
stitute understood. 

11. The speaker regards all associated with him, whether they are denoted by 
one word or by more, as united with him in speaking, and accordingly he includes 
them all with himself by using the plural pronoun of the first person, we {our, ours, 
us); so that " you and I "=we, " George and I "=we, " you and I and George "=we; 
as, " We soldiers must leave our native land ;" " You and I and George are to get 
our new desks to-day." 

12. If the speaker does not mention himself, he includes the person addressed 
and all associated with the person addressed in the plural pronoun of the second 
person, you; so that "thou (you) and George ,, =you; as, " You soldiers must leave 
your native land!" "Thou and thy wicked son have spread your snares for my 
life." 

13. In those languages which have a distinct form for each person of the plural 
"You and I," " George and I" take the first person, etc. ; but in English, as the 
three persons of the plural are alike in form, this principle is of no practical 
importance. 

14. Two or more singular nouns connected by or or nor, not being equivalent 
to a plural noun, require a singular verb ; as, 'John or James was here " (one or 
the other was here, but not both) ; " Neither John nor James was here " (neither 
the one nor the other was here). 

15. When the nominatives connected by or or nor differ in person or number 
the verb agrees with the nominative next to it ; as, " Either thou or I am con- 
cerned ;" " I or thou art to blame ;" " Neither you nor he is to blame." " Either 
the prior or thou hast made some singular alterations."— Scott* When a singular 

* Latham savs that when the pronouns are preceded by either or neither the 
verb is in the third person ("Either he or I is in the wrong," " Neither he nor I is 
in the wrong"), and that when the pronouns are not preceded by either or neither 



Explain "John, and James also, is here." 

Explain "Virtue, and not riches, con- 
stitutes the happiness of a nation." 

How does the speaker regard all asso- 
ciated with him ? 

What plural pronoun represents "You 



and I"? "George and I"? "You 
and I and George"? "Thou and 
George"? 
Explain "John or James was here." 
Explain "Either thou or I am con- 
cerned." 



216 SYNTAX. 

and a plural subject are connected by or or nor the plural subject is placed next to 
the verb ; as, " Neither poverty nor riclies were injurious to him." 

Few good writers ever use such constructions as these. It is generally better 
to express the verb with each subject or to change the form of expression ; as, 
"Either thou art concerned or I am," or "One of us is concerned;" "I am to 
blame or thou art," or "One of us is to blame," or "The blame rests on me or 
thee ;" " He was injured by neither poverty nor riches," etc. 

16. A collective noun in the singular number takes a singular verb when the 
speaker thinks of the collection as one mass or body, a plural verb when he has In 
his mind the individual objects composing the collection. 

" The crowd was immense, and it swayed hither and thither in one unbroken 
mass." Here the crowd is spoken of as one, and accordingly the verb was and the 
noun it are in the singular number. "All the world are spectators of your eon- 
duct." It is the persons composing the world that are here spoken of, and accord- 
ingly the verb are and the noun spectators are in the plural number. 

" The army destroys every thing in its course ;" " The army destroy every thing 
in their course." Which of these is the correct expression? Does the speaker 
think of the army as one body, or does he think of the individual soldiers? Evi- 
dently he thinks of the army as one body, and he should use the singular verb 
and noun. 

Let the pupil ask himself similar questions with respect to " The nation is 
powerful " and " The nation are powerful," " The meeting was large " and " The 
meeting were large," "The multitude pursue pleasure as their chief good" and 
"The multitude pursues pleasure as its chief good," "The corporation consists of 
a mayor and council" and "The corporation consist of a mayor and council," 
"The committee was very full" and "The committee were very full" He will 
see that the first expression in each series is the correct one. 

When a person invites the public to attend a lecture or speech should he say, 
"The public is invited" or "The public are invited"? In other words, does he 
think of the whole public as one mass, or does he think of the persons composing 
the public ? Evidently it is of the persons composing the public that he is think- 
ing, and he should say, " The public are invited." 

17. With the second person of the imperative the subject is generally omitted ; 
as, "Go [you] in peace." (See Rule I, Remark 3.) 

18. When the subject is a relative pronoun it is sometimes omitted. (See Rule 
I, Remark 4.) 

19. The subject is sometimes omitted when it is the antecedent to a relative 
pronoun; as, " Who combats bravely is not therefore brave." — Pope. (See pp.-. 

20. "Betwixt four and five years had elapsed since they had parted <>n the 
beach of the island of Roseneath. "—Scott. What is the subject of had daptedt 
Not years; for that is in the objective case after the preposition bcticixt. Some such 
word as space is implied. 

The subject is omitted in such expressions as as follows, as appears; as, "The 
road is dangerous, as [it, the matter] appears from his statement;" " His speed) 
was as follows;" "His words were as follows." It or some other general word is 

the verb agrees with the first ("I or he am in the wrong," "He or I m in the 
wrong," "You or he are in the wrong," "He or you is in the wrong"). Every 
cultivated ear instinctively rejects such expressions as those presented lure as 
models. What ear could tolerate "Either the prior or thou has made some sin- 
gular alterations"? The ear tolerates expressions containing a verb which is 
inconsistent with one subject but consistent with the other only when the verb is 
placed next to the subject with which it is consistent. 

In what number must the verb be with j When is the subject omitted ? 
a collective noun? | Explain "as appears." "As follows." 



VEEB AND SUBJECT. 217 

the subject of follows, which takes the same form whether the word preceding it is 
singular, like speech, or plural, like tvords. 

21. There is a construction in which by the omission of the subject but seems to 
be equivalent to a relative pronoun and not;* as, " There is no man but knows '■= 
" There is no man who does iwt know." " There was not a pretty face in the whole 
country but came in lor a share." — Irving. " There is scarcely one of these char- 
acters but is a villain." — Thctckeray. "There's not a breeze but whispers of thy 
name. ' ' — Proctor. 

" On the house-tops was no woman 
But spat towards him and hissed; 
No child but screamed out curses 
And shook its little fist." — Macaulay. 
" There 's not a string attuned to mirth 

But has its chord of melancholy."— Hood. 
"No sycophant or slave that dared oppose 

Her sacred cause but trembled when he rose." Cowper. 

" There 's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st 
But in his motion like an angel sings." — Shakespeare. 
In this construction there is probably an ellipsis of a personal pronoun ; as, 
"I found no man but he was true to me." — Shakespeare. Or a relative may be 
supplied ; as, " There is no man but [a man who] knows." " There 's not a breeze 
but [a breeze that] whispers of thy name." 

22. The subject is sometimes improperly omitted ; as, " The whole is produced 
as an illusion of the first class and hopes it will be found worthy of patronage." 
Here hopes is connected to is produced, and the whole is represented as hoping, etc. 
He or some other noun should be inserted before hopes. "Any person finding the 
spectacles, and will return them to the Gait House, shall be liberally rewarded." 
Here person is the subject of shall be rewarded, and will return has no subject. Cor- 
rected, "Any person who shall find the spectacles and return them," etc. " Their 
master happened to stay at home that summer to finish a galley he was building 
to cruise with, and was then upon the stocks."— LockharVs Don Quixote. Here the 
master is represented as being on the stocks. Which should be inserted before 
was. "A kind of riding with short stirrups which the Spaniards took from the 
Arabians, and is still used by all the African and Eastern nations."— LockharVs 
Don Quixote. What is the subject of is used? Not which; for that is the object of 
took. Insert which before is used. 

23. As the relative pronoun does not vary in form for number or person, the' 
number and person of the verb are determined by the antecedent ; as, "7 who am, 
thou who art, he who is, we who are, you who are, they who are." 

" Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, head of one of the greatest houses that 
ever was in England."— Maginn. The antecedent to the relative that is houses, and 
the verb should be plural—" one of the greatest houses that ever were in England." 
" He was one of the most mischievous statesmen that has ever appeared in modern 
Europe." — Sir Jonah Barrington. Why is has in this passage incorrect? '' He was 
the most mischievous statesman that has ever appeared in modern Europe." Is 
the singular has in this passage correct ? Why ? 

* Like the Latin quin ; Nemo est quin sciat, where quin=qui non. 



Explain " There is no man but knows." 
Give an example in which the subject 

is improperly omitted. 
When a relative pronoun is the subject 

by what are the number and person of 

the verb determined? 



In "He was one of the most mischiev- 
ous statesmen that has ever appeared 
in modern Europe " which is the rela- 
tive? Which the anteeedeiU? 

Should the verb in this sentence be sin- 
gular or plural ? 

19 



218 



EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the verbs and subjects: 
Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. — Gray. 
Lovely indeed the mimic works of Art, 
But Nature's works far lovelier. — Cowper. 
How noiseless is thought! No rolling of drums, no tramp of 
squadrons or immeasurable tumult of baggage -wagons, attends its 
movements. — Carlyle. 

2. Correct the errors: 

They was discontented. You has no book. Does you live there? 
You is here. You was there. You loves rain. We was delighted. 
Thou has been pleased. Was you present? Them's my sentiments. 
Circumstances alters cases. Molasses are sweet, and so are honey. 
His pulse are very rapid. Idle boys hates study. Fifty pounds of 
wheat contains forty pounds of flour. Here lies the remains of John 
Smith. Not one in ten of the English plays written before the time 
of Shakespeare have escaped destruction. — R. G. White. The deriva- 
tion of the word, as well as the usage of the great majority of English 
writers, fix the spelling the other way. — Dean Alford. 

[Kemark 5.] A part of the exports consist of raw silk. Nothing 
but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. The derivation 
of these words are uncertain. The general with some soldiers were 
taken. 

[Kemark 6.] Idleness and ignorance, produces many vices. John 
and James has been here. Temperance and exercise preserves health. 
Time and tide waits for no man. Our welfare and security consists in 
unity. Honor and shame from no condition rises. He and I was there. 
The love of virtue and devotion to pleasure is opposed to each other. 
His energy and industry was remarkable. What means that noise and 
excitement? Much does human pride and folly require correction. 
If his explanation and mine agrees. — Smollett 

[Remark 8.] Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water toem 
with life. Every sight and every sound amaze him. Each day and 
hour and moment are to be properly employed. No wife, no mother 
were there to comfort him. 

[Remark 10.] The mind, and not the body, sin. Merit, and not 
patronage, cause his promotion. Diligent industry, and not mean 
savings, produce honorable competence. Cicero, as well as Demos- 
thenes, were great orators. Books, and not pleasure, occupies his time. 
Our own heart, and not other men's opinions, form our true honor. 



VERB AND SUBJECT. 219 

[Remark 14.] Either ability or inclination were wanting. George 
or "William have the book. Neither Jonathan nor Joseph were there. 
Our happiness or misery are in a great measure put in our own hands. 
Neither George nor Thomas nor Richard are studying. Florence or 
Elizabeth favor us with their company every evening. A man is not 
such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move only as they are 
moved. One or the other of these boys must relinquish their claim. I 
have carefully marked the secondary evidence on whose faith a passage 
or a fact were reduced to depend. — Gibbon. I am one of those whom 
neither fear nor anxiety deprive of their ordinary appetite. — Scott. 
A circle, a square, a triangle, or a hexagon please the eye by their 
regularity. — Blair. 

The traveler, he whom sea or mountain sunder 

Erom his own country, sees things strange and new. — Rose. 

[Remark 16.] The British Parliament are composed of King, 
Lords, and Commons. The Congress of the United States consist 
of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The public is invited 
to attend, and we can promise it much pleasure. The council was 
divided in its sentiments. The committee were very full when this 
point was decided. The crowd I met were very large. 

[Remark 22.] The calm in which he was born and lasted so long 
did not continue to the end of his life. He is a man whom I have 
known for a long time, and sustains an excellent character. "Wilkes 
was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great 
abilities. Win martial fl ames forever fire thy mind, 

And never, never be to heaven resigned? — Pope. 

[Remark 23.] Scott is one of those men of genius who delights in 
the genius of others. — C. R. Leslie. He came at last to prove one of 
the cruellest renegades that ever was known. — Lockharts Don Quixote. 
Thackeray's "Virginians," one of the most elaborate and careful and 
exquisite pictures of English life a hundred years ago that has ever 
been painted by pen or pencil. — Harper's Magazine. One of the most 
peculiar cases that has ever been recorded. — Mrs. Gordon. One of the 
most valuable books for the improvement of young minds that has 
appeared in any language. — Boswell. In that short time he effected 
one of the most extensive, difficult, and salutary reforms that ever was 
accomplished by any statesman. — Macaulay. Abnormal is one of those 
words which has come in to supply a want in the precise statements 
of science. — Dean Alford. 



220 SYNTAX. 

KULE X. 
The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjunct, or a 

finite verb.* 

Noun-infinitive. 

As a noun the infinitive may be used — 

1. As subject of a verb; as, "To play is pleasant;" "To rule a state 
is a difficult art;" "I feel it to be my duty to go"=" I feel that to go is 
my duty." (See p. 161, 3, and Kem.) To go, or it, to go, subject of to be. 

2. As object of a transitive verb; as, "Boys love to play;" "He 
refused to labor;" "He has begun to study;" "George wishes to learn;" 
"They sought to slay him;" "She tried to run;" "I have to pay it;" 
"Justice ought (owes) to prevail;" "Justice should prevail;" "I can 
write" (see p. 82); "He may go." 

3. As predicate-nominative; as, "To persevere is to succeed;" "The 
proper course is to pay the debt." 

4. As object of a preposition;" as, "He is about to go" 

5. As noun in apposition; as, " Delightful task ! to rear the tender 
thought." 

6. As nominative independent; as, "7b die, to sleep." 

7. As nominative absolute; as, "To whisper being forbidden," "It 
being forbidden to whisper." (See p. 150, 3, and Remark.) 

8. As factitive objective; as, "I saw him fall;" "I heard him sing;" 
" I feel my pulse beat." t This may be called the factitive infinitive. 

*Some represent the infinitive as always having a subject In "John loves to 
play" to play is regarded as having John for its subject. This is an erroneous view. 
To play is merely a name for the action, and with respect to a subject does not 
differ from an abstract noun. "John loves to play "="John loves play." Both 
these forms imply that there is some one to play ; and the infinitive to play is no 
more to be regarded as having a subject than is the noun play. 

fAt least I do not believe that sentences like Ich sah ihn fallen, " I saw him fall." 
Ich horte ihn singen, " I heard him sing," Ich hk.<: ihn <i> hni, " I bade him go," Lata 
mich gehen, " let me go," analogous cases to which occur in Sanskrit, can be taken 
otherwise than so that the working of the operation of seeing, hearing, etc., falls 
directly upon the person or thing which one sees, hears, charges, etc., and then 
upon the action expressed by the infinitive which one in like manner sees, hears. 
etc. The two objects of the verb are coordinate, and stand in the relation of 
apposition to one another (I saw " him" and " falling," " the action of falling"). 
It appears, however, from the context, but is not formally expressed, that the 
action expressed by the second object [as " fall "] is performed by the first object 
("I saw the stone fall ").— Bopp's Comparative. Grammar of Sanskrit, etc. :\. 1286. 

It does not seem to be true that the action of seeing, hearing, etc., falls first 
upon the person or thing which one sees, etc., and then upon the action expressed 

What is the rule for the infinitive? [ Give an example in which the infinitive 

Give an example in which the infinitive ' is used as object of a preposition. As 

is used as subject. As object of a noun in apposition. As nominative 

transitive verb. As predicate - nom- independent As nominative abso- 

inative. I lute. As factitive objective. 



THE INFINITIVE. 221 

Adjunct-infinitive. 
The infinitive as adjunct may have connected with it the 
idea of — 

1. At; as, "We sigh to see such ruin" (at seeing); "I rejoice to 
hear it" (at hearing); "Just as grieved appears [at] to want the 
strength of hulls." 

2. In; as, "Boys delight to play" (in playing); "He is prompt to 
perform his duty" (in performing); "They rejoice [in] to do evil;" 
"Be thou the first [in] to befriend true merit;" "He is wiser than [he 
would be wise] to do this" (in doing); "Brooks exults [in] to trust 
and blushes [at] to be paid." 

3. Of; as, "He was desirous to learn" (of learning); "Worthy to 
be promoted" (of being promoted); "I am ashamed [of] to have 
encouraged such a villain;" "He was afraid [of] to see her;" "The 
generous pleasure [of] to be charmed with wit." — Pope. 

4. On; as, "They tremble to hear these murmurs" (on hearing); 
"She smiled to see the doughty hero slain" (on seeing); "Besolved 
[on] to win the prize;" "Determined [on] to resist." 

5. With; as, "Still pleased to teach (with teaching), and yet not 
proud to know (of knowing), nor yet too vain [for] to mend." — Pope. 
"She should have been content [with] to manage well that mighty 
government." — Dryden. 

6. From; as, "Yet oft a sigh prevails and sorrows fall 

To see (from seeing) the sum of human bliss so small; 

And oft I wish amidst the scene to find 

Some spot to real happiness consigned, 

Where my worn soul, each wandering hope at rest, 

May gather bliss [from] to see my fellows blest." — Goldsmith. 

7. For; as, "They serve [for] to fill a room;" "She stoops [for] to 
conquer;" "He has come in order [for] to relieve you;" "I sigh [for] 
to behold the scenes of my youth;" "He sent the servant [for] to 
bring the letters;" "There is a time [for] to laugh;" "He is too proud 
[for] to labor;" "I have a house [for] to sell;" "This house is [for] to 

by the infinitive. The infinitive rather completes the idea begun to be expressed 
by the verb of seeing, for instance, and then the person or thing seen is made the 
object of the complex expression (see "factitive objective," Remark 11, p. 193). 
"I saw" +" fall" =" I saw-fall." What did I see- fall? The stone. Compare "Lei 
me go" and ''Dismiss me," "He let fly a stone" and "He threw a stone." "She 
made him go," and "She sent him." 

Give an example in which the infinitive I Give an example in which the infinitive 
as adjunct has connected with it the as adjunct has connected with it the 
idea of at. Of in. Of of. \ idea of on. Of from. Of for. 



222 SYNTAX. 

be sold;" "He has a great desire [for] to improve;" "The fruit is ripe 
enough [for] to use;" " Boys long [for] to play;"* "In the time [for] to 
come. T "Arid 1 shall I think the world was made for one, 
And men are born for kings, as beasts for men, 
Not for protection, but [for] to be devoured?" — Dryden. 

Verb-infinitive. 
In the sense of a finite verb the infinitive may be used — 

1. "With a subject in the objective (see Rule I, Remark 1, p. 178); 
as, "I know him to be honest;" "Let him be punished;" "He orders 
the bridge to be broken down;" "He confessed himself to be in fault." 

Remarks.— 1. An infinitive, a gerund, or a nouu-proposition may be the sub- 
ject of an infinitive ; as, " I believe it to be a difficult matter to understand him "=» 
"I believe to understand him to be a difficult matter." (Or it, to understand. Bee 
p. 150, 3.) "We find walking to be more agreeable than sitting still." "That he 
was the author we believe to have been the opinion of all his friends " = " We 
believe that-he-was-the-author to have been the opinion of all his friends." 

2. An infinitive with its subject may be introduced by for; as, "For us to do so 
would be improper." (See p. 151.) But for before an infinitive with its subject is 
not always merely introductory ; as, " This passage is too difficult for me to trans- 
late." Here for is a preposition having as its object me to translate. (See Remark 
5, p. 196.) 

2. Without a subject; as, "He was commanded to retreat'' (that 
he should retreat); "He was advised to do it" (that he should do it; ; 
"Philip swore to abstain from aggression" (that he would abstain); 
"I told him how to do it" (how he should or could do it); " He vt 
blind as not to see the danger" (that he did not see) ; "To confess the 
truth, I was in fault." (See Substitutes and Transformations," fourth 
paragraph, p. 166.) 

Remarks.— 1. For such expressions as " He is said to be honest" see Remark, 
p. 1G7. "Bills are requested to be paid in advance." Such expressions as this 
seem to push this construction about as far as it can in reason be expected to go. J 

2. The to of the infinitive was originally a preposition. The Anglo-Saxons 
had two forms of the infinitive, one without to, as helpan, to help; the other with 

*"Than longen folke to gon on pilgrimages, 

And palmeres for to s'eken strange strondes." — Chaucer. 

t " The days that are yet for to come."— Psalter. 

tThis construction is common in Greek and Latin and is railed in Greek and 

Latin grammars " The personal construction for the impersonal," personal denoting 

the construction in which a noun is the subject (whether it denotes a person or 

not), and impersonal denoting the construction in which a proposition is the BUD- 

}'ect." impersonal, ''It is said that he is honest;" personal, "He i-* Bald to D6 
lonest." (See Hartley's Greek Grammar, p. 285; JIarkness's Latin Grammar, p. 25-1.) 

Give an example in which the Infinitive I Without a subject 
in the sense of a finite verb is used What was to with the infinitive origi- 
with a subject. | nally? 



THE INFINITIVE. 



223 



to, as to helpanne, to or for helping. This form is by some called the dative of the 
infinitive, by others the gerund. The two forms in the course of time became 
confounded, so that the form with to came to be used instead of the simple form, 
and the nature of the preposition was forgotten. * 

But a word does not often change its meaning so completely as to lose all 
traces of its original meaning, and we find to still employed as a preposition in 
some constructions, particularly with words denoting tendency; as, "She is dis- 
posed to be merry " (to merriment) ; " They are obliged to be cautious " (bound to 
caution) ; " He is inclined to be sad " (to sadness) : " I was forced to comply " (to 
compliance); "He aspired to rule;" "lam going to study;" " He was urged to 
declare war ;" " These things are destined to perish ;" "It came to pass ;" "It will 
go near to be thought so ;" " This will contribute to produce satisfaction." 

3. The simple form of the infinitive (without to) is used after the so-called 
auxiliaries, can, may, must, might, could, would, should; as, "I can write," "I must 
write." The verbs after shall, will, and do, are simple forms of the infinitive; as, 
" I shall write," "I will write," " I do write." 

4. The simple form is used after the verbs bid, dare (venture), feel, hear, let, 
make, need, see, behold, observe, perceive, and have (in the sense of procure, require, 
cause); as, "I bade him follow;" "I feel the pain abate;" "He made me go;" 
" You dare not meet him ;" " We saw him fall ;" " You heard him say so ;" " I let 
him go;" " They would have us give up our rights ;" " How delightful to behold 
a young man res-ist the allurements of vice !" 

To is sometimes used with the infinitive after some of these verbs, particularly 
when they are emphatic; as, "The law of friendship bids me to conceal." — Shake- 
speare. "And bade me to dismiss you."— Id. "And dar'st thou then to beard the 
lion in his den ?" — Scott. 

After the passive voice of such of these verbs as are transitive, except let, to is 
used ; as, " He was heard to declare;" " He was seen to fall." 

5. The simple form is used in such passages as the following: " They are not 
willing to do so much as listen to his story ;" " They wish to do something more 
than eat and sleep;" " Better not be at all than not be noble ;" " She does nothing 
but sigh." The infinitive sigh is the subject of the verb be disguised in but (be out 
to sigh). (See Remark 14, p. 127.) 

6. In the minds of some persons there seems to be a great deal of confusion 
with respect to the subject of the infinitive. To determine whether an objective 
after a transitive verb is the object of that verb or the subject of the infinitive 
following, nothing is necessary but to change the infinitive to a finite verb and 
see whether the object becomes the subject of the finite verb. " He commanded 
the soldier to shoot "=" He commanded the soldier that he should shoot," soldier 
being the object of commanded, not the subject of to shoot. "He commanded the 
soldier to be shot" = "He commanded that the soldier should be shot." Here 
soldier is the subject of the infinitive to be shot. The command was not given to 
the soldier. 



*To say, as some grammarians do, that to is a preposition in such expressions 
as "To play is pleasant" is as absurd as to say that all the Smiths of the present 
day are smiths. 



Give some examples in which to retains 

its original meaning. 
In what mood is the verb after may, can, 

might, could, would, or should ? 
After what other verbs is the simple 

form (without to) used ? 
Which form is used after the passive of 

these verbs ? 



Explain " They are not willing to do so 

much as listen to his story." 
Explain " She does nothing but sigh." 
How may we determine whether an ob- 
jective following a transitive verb is 
the object of that verb or the subject 
of the infinitive following? 



224 SYNTAX. 

" The infinitive is used . . -with a subject in the objective case ; as, ' He told 
HIM TO GO.' " — Vickroy's English Grammar, p. 187. Here him is not the subject of 
the infinitive to go, but the object of the transitive verb told. The passage does nut 
mean that he told that he should go. "The general sent him to reconnoitre. 
Him is construed as the subject of the infinitive to reconnoitre."— Vickroy's EnglUh 
Grammar, p. 190. Him is not the subject of to reconnoitre, but the object oi sent. 
The general sent him [for] to reconnoitre, that he should reconnoitre. 

Another writer gives as examples of infinitives with subjects the following: 
"I bade him follow;" " He commanded me to desist;" " The ant told the biUUrjty 
to go about his business." It is easy to see that the nouns following bade, com- 
manded, and told are the objects of those verbs, not the subjects of the infinitives 
following. 

7. The imperfect infinitive denotes something as imperfect, still going on or 
about to take place ; the perfect infinitive something perfect or past at the time 
indicated. " The bulls of Colchis are reported to have brazen feet"— Swift. As the 
writer did not wish to represent the bulls of Colchis as still in existence, he should 
have used the perfect infinitive, to have had. "The Bailie had a great mind to 
have continued the dispute."— Scott. As the Bailie's "great mind" did not regard 
something that was past at the time, the imperfect should have been used — " The 
Bailie had a great mind to continue the dispute." "I was once inclined to have 
gone on shore."— Defoe. Was the going on shore to precede the inclination ? The 
answer to this question shows to go to be the proper expression. " I expected to 
have found him at home." We do not expect (look forward to) what is past. " 1 
was anxious to have done it." At the time of the anxiety was the doing past? H not, 
to have done is incorrect. Apply the principle to " Yesterday I hoped to have seen 
you." If we intend to refer the seeing to the time denoted by yesterday and the 
hoping to some previous time, we should say, "I had hoped to see you yesterday." 

8. For " He ought to have gone ' ' see pp. 104-5, 10. If the verb ought had a regular 
form for the past tense, this would be " He oughted to go." The perfect infinitive 
is employed to express what ought has no form to express. A similar construction 
is to be seen in " He should have gone," " He could have gone," " He might have 
gone," etc. 

9. It is an error to omit to in any case except such as have been mentioned. 
Do not say, " Please excuse me," but " Please to excuse me." 

10. Avoid the vulgarism of using and instead of to after try; as, "I will try 
and see him," instead of "I will try to see him." 

11. It is a vulgarism to use the sign to without a verb ; as, " They are always 
doing what they want to ;" " I can go, if I wish to;" instead of " They are always 
doing what they want to do;" " I can go, if I wish," or " if I wish to go," or " if I 
wish to do so." 

12. The infinitive and the gerund being so nearly allied (see p. 68), in some 
constructions either the infinitive or the gerund may be used; as, "To play is 
pleasant," or "Playing is pleasant;" "He ceased to speak," or "He ceased i 
ing." But some words require the infinitive, others the gerund; as, " He lupin 
to speak;" "He commenced speaking." It is incorrect to use the infinitive after 
commence. "1 recollect having seen him" is better than "I recollect to tan 
him." " She acknowledged to have felt an impulse towards him."— Irving. Better, 
having felt. " He was suspected to entertain sentiments unfavorable to the govern- 
ment. "—Scott. Better, of entertaining. "In danger to form rash and hasty con- 
elusions."— Swift. Better, of forming. "So supercilious and exacting that the 

Why is " I expected to have found him I Why is " I can go if I wish to " incor- 
at home" incorrect? " Please excuse reef.' 
me" ? "I will try and see him " ? | Is " He commenced to speak " correct? 



THE INFINITIVE. 225 

footmen avoided to go his errands "—Taine's Eng. Literature. Avoided going [on]. 
"I do not care for terminating my thoughts in barren speculations."— Addison. 
Care to terminate. 

13. For the gerund in such forms as "The house is building" see Eemark 3, 
p. 91. Some examples are presented here. " The whilst this play is playing."— 
Shakespeare. " I saw that a way was opening for the establishment of real liberty, 
that a foundation was laying for the deliverance of man."— Milton. "While the 
temple of the Lord was building."— Id. "Designs are carrying on against their 
liberties."— Locke. "He begged the honor of his Majesty's accepting a dinner 
while his carriage was repairing, and while the dinner was preparing begged leave 
to amuse his Majesty with a collection of pictures." — Horace Walpole. "While 
this necessary movement was making."— Cooper. "An attempt is making in the 
English Parliament." — Daniel Webster. "While these things were transacting in 
England." — Bancroft. "While innocent blood was shedding under the form of 
justice Parliament met." — Macaulay. "There is always mason's work doing." — 
Buskin. " The excellent edition of Shakespeare now publishing in Boston."— G. P. 
Marsh. " For me the final chapter is now writing; it may be already written."— 
John Bright/-' 

EXERCISES. 
1. Show how the infinitives are used: 

To err is human. To whisper in school is forbidden. To remain 
here is impossible. 

To laugh were want of goodness and of grace, 
And to be grave exceeds all power of face." — Pope. 
These boys love to study. He has learned to swim. Cease to do evil. 
Learn to do well. He scorns to lie. I dislike to scold him. He desires 
to see her. They began to fight. He has ceased to read. Pools rush 
in where angels fear to tread. Give me to see, and Ajax asks no more. 

* Dickens, whom grammaticasters seem to have frightened from his propriety 
at the beginning of his career, recovered himself at a more mature period. 
"Baskets, troughs, and tubs of grapes had been carrying all day along the roads 
and lanes." — Little Dorrit. "Among the mighty store of wonderful chains that 
are for ever forging."— Edwin Brood. "The street lamps were lighting." — Little 
Dorrit. 

Dr. Fitzedward Hall, a Sanskrit scholar, who, if we may judge from his style, 
is very much dissatisfied with classical English generally, defends is being built by 
taking the ground that it is composed of is+being built, not of is being+built, and 
he thinks this analysis removes every objection. " If Mr. White," says he, " had 
hit upon the right participle, I suspect his chapter on Is Being Done would have 
been much shorter than it is, and very different. " — Modern English, p. 339. Now, 
being expresses in the participial form what is expresses in the indicative form, 
and, as is built means is in the state expressed by built, being built must mean being 
in the state expressed by built. If "the house is built" means that the house is 
completed, " the house being built" must mean that the house is completed ; and 
this is the sense in which such expressions are used. " That house being finished, 
the workmen have begun the other." If is being finished means is+being finished, 
it can not mean not finished, as Dr. Hall wishes it to mean. 

What Dr. Hall's skill in criticism is may be inferred from the following pas- 
sage : " What is there in Latin— which helplessly leaves it doubtful whether amor 
is to mean 'I am loved,' or ' I am being loved'— to suggest is being done?" If is 
being done were an established form in the language, the form would not bo proper 
in such verbs as love. (See Remark 1, p. 91 of this Grammar.) As Dr. Hall's imper- 
fect passive " The house is being built " implies that the house is not yet built, so 
" She is being loved " would imply that she is not yet loved, but only on the way 
to that state. 



226 SYNTAX. 

"What a tangled web we weave 

When first we practice to deceive. — Scott. 

To live is to think. The property of rain is to wet. The best way 
is to frighten him. His chief object is to get money. This thing, to 
stand waiting for hours, has become wearisome. This alone is evil 
fortune, to be deprived of knowledge. You were about to speak. 
They are about to elect him. To forget him so soon! To live with 
such a woman! To please her being impossible. To understand hi in 
being so difficult. 

They grieve to see him so fallen. I am surprised to find you so 
heedless. He wondered to meet her there. I am glad to see you. Let 
dogs delight to bark and bite. He was afraid to venture. They are 
desirous to excel. If they are handsome, they have the gift to know it. 
The earth shook to see the heavens on fire. They are resolved to con- 
quer or die. I am satisfied to see you safe; I ask no more. They are 
content to threaten, though they would destroy. I am best pleased to 
be absent. Pope was not content to satisfy; he desired to excel. 

I read to learn. We should eat to live, not live to eat. He is too 
deaf to hear you. There is a time to weep. He was anxious to succeed. 
He had no opportunity to distinguish himself. One of the few, the 
immortal names that were not born to die. "We are ready to recite. 
"We were too late to take the train. There is no time to waste. I come 
to bury Caesar, not to praise him. This horse is to be sold. She is to 
be married. 

Faith, gospel, all, seemed made to be disputed; 
And none had sense enough to be confuted. — Pope. 
All fools have still an itching to deride. — Id. 

I supposed him to be a gentleman. That will cause you to be 
despised. The sovereigns had ordered their throne to be placed in 
public. — Irving. The passage of Caesar is insufficient to prove the rein- 
deer to have existed in Germany. — Milman. I believe Halifax to have 
been the author. — Macaulay. He believed it to be wrong. He did 
[that] what he believed to be wrong. He took a course which the 
event showed to have been taken too hastily. 

I gave my love a ring and made him swear never to part with it. 
Never to speak of this that you have seen swear by my sword. He 
was ordered to depart out of the kingdom. He was requested to give 
money. They were commanded to advance rapidly. He knows not 
where to lay his head. Can you tell me how to do this? He was so 
foolish as to rush into the snare. To speak plainly, he is very ignorant. 



THE INFINITIVE. 227 

To conclude, they are like the fruits of the earth in this unnatural 
season. Their progress was such as to excite admiration. It is so high 
as to be inaccessible. He went on in a noble strain of thought and 
language, so as to chain the attention of every hearer. — Macaulay. 
Every passion, not to mention health and sickness and the greater 
alterations in body and mind, makes us appear almost different 
ereztures.-Addison. Greece hep useM ^ inditeg 

"When to repress and when indulge our nights. — Pope. 

2. Correct the errors : 

So let he and I say good-night together. Let you and I be together. 
The person I had seen in pattens, and who I suppose to have been the 
cook, frequently came. 

[Kemark 4.] I heard him to say. I saw him to enter the house. 
Let no rash promise to be made. I felt a chilling sensation to creep 
over me. "Wanton jests make fools to laugh and wise men to frown. 

He was heard say. He was seen enter the house. The pain was 
felt abate. He was made go with them. He was observed put his 
hand in the gentleman's pocket. 

[Eemark 7.] The bulls of Guisando are two vast statues remaining 
in that town ever since the time of the Komans, supposed to be set up 
by Metellus. — Lockhart's Don Quixote. I can not excuse the remissness 
of those whose business it should have been to have interposed their good 
offices. I found him better than I expected to have found him. I was 
then disposed to have yielded. They would have found it difficult to 
have accomplished their purpose. "We have done no more than it was 
our duty to have done. It would have been no difficult matter to have 
compiled a volume of such amusing precedents. I intended to have 
started yesterday. They would say that the facts stated in the indict- 
ment would have been fully sufficient to have warranted the judge to 
have directed and the jury to have given a general verdict of guilty. — 
Lord Erskine. 

[Remark 9.] Please give me that book. It is better to live on a 
little than outlive a great deal. You ought not walk so fast. Mary 
helped me do it. 

[Remark 10.] I will try and do my duty. We ought not to try 
and over-define or prove God. — Taine's English Literature. 

[Remark 11.] He was ordered to go, but he did not wish to. I 
said, I will try not to whisper this forenoon, and I did not; then I 
said, I will try not to this afternoon. Be sure to write yourself, and 
tell him to. 



228 SYNTAX. 

[Remark 12.] He is in danger to form bad habits. He was sus- 
pected to be friendly to the banished family. He avoided to express 
himself decidedly. She has not commenced to study yet. 

RULE XI. 

A preposition with its object forms an adjunct modifying 
some preceding word; as, "He sat by me." 

The preceding word is sometimes called the antecedent term. 

"He went from Boston to Philadelphia." [From what? From 
Boston. What from Boston? Went from Boston. From Boston is 
an adjunct to went. To what? To Philadelphia. What to Philadel- 
phia? Went to Philadelphia. To Philadelphia is an adjunct to went.'] 

" By imprudence he was plunged into difficulties." [By what? By 
imprudence. What by imprudence? Was plunged by imprudence. 
By imprudence is an adjunct to was plunged. Into what? Into diffi- 
culties. What into difficulties? Was plunged into difficulties. Into 
difficulties is an adjunct to was plunged.'] 

Remarks. — 1. The object is sometimes omitted. (See Rule VI, Remark 6.) 

2. The antecedent term is sometimes omitted ; as, " [To say all] in a word, 
he is ruined;" "All the horrors of war before known or heard of were mercy 
[when compared] to that new havoc."— Burke. "These, [reckoning] to a man, 
will hate or suspect him."— Pope. "They met us [amounting] to the number of 
three hundred." "The queen that bore thee, [who was] oftener upon her knees 
than on her feet, died every day she lived."— Shakespeare. " Virtue [being] in dis- 
tress excites pity." "A poem [written] by Sir Walter Scott." "They are often 
governed by fancy instead of [being governed] by reason." 

3. For in vain, etc., see Remark 14, p. 134. For from forth, etc., see p. 121. 

4. For from before, etc., see p. 134. "Lambeth is over against Westminster 
Abbey." Some make a " compound preposition " of over against in such construc- 
tions; but each of these words has its own meaning; against means oppi» 

and over implies the other side of something. Lambeth is against (opposite to) 
Westminster Abbey, and it is over the Thames. For over see Remark 16, p. 128. 

5. Two prepositions are sometimes placed before the same object: 

you vote for or against the measure?" When a preposition is separated from its 
object by several words the effect is generally unpleasant ; as, " He came from and 
is now returning to France." Better, " He came from France and is now returning 
to it." Such forms as that mentioned above should be employed only when they 
produce special exactness or clearness. 

6. Care should be taken to use the proper preposition. 

There is no abatement of the disease; not in. That country abounds in rorn. 
The faithful man shall abound with blessings. I do not wish to abridge him of 

*" Against the Tiber's mouth, but far away, 

An ancient town was seated on the sea."— Dryden. 



"What is the rule for prepositions? 
What is the preceding word sometimes 

called? 
Give examples in which the object is 

omitted. 



Give examples in which the antecedent 

term is omitted. 
How may "He came from and is now 

returning to France" be improved? 



PKEPOSITIONS. 229 

his privileges ; sometimes prom. He was accused of having done this. This was 
well adapted to the purpose. He is an advocate for peace. He agreed to my pro- 
posal. This dialect is akin to that ; not with. This caused her alienation from 
him. She made an alteration in the dress. This is analogous to that. He is angry 
with her. He is angry at her conduct. She has a great antipathy to a cat ; some- 
times against. This was appropriate to his circumstances. He is ashamed of 
having deceived you. We arrived at Stonington. 

He bestowed the money on his favorites. He blushed for shame. He has no 
capacity for thinking. He conferred a favor on them. Do you confide in him? 
He is conversant with such persons and with such things.* Deficient in means to 
carry on war. He died of the cholera. She died for love. They shall die by the 
sword. The pound of flesh which I demand of him. Appearance is different frox 
reality. He disagreed to our proposal. The rain will disappoint us of our walk. 
The road was so muddy that we were disappointed in the walk we took. 

They embarked in that vessel for Venice. He was passionately enamored of 
her. He enjoins on them the duty of ohedien.ce. The house was founded on a 
rock. They are friendly to us. Inculcate this truth on their minds. He made an 
inroad into the country. He was initiated into the club. He is insensible to (not 
affected by) her kindness. He is insensible of (destitute of the feeling of) shame. 
He insinuated himself into the king's favor. 

He lives in Lisbon ; sometimes AT.f If I had been married to him. He has my 
good will to marry (intransitive) with Nan Page. 

He was named after his father ; sometimes for. You have need of rest. 

I am much obliged to you for this favor. J This quarrel originated in a trifling 
misunderstanding. 

He has a partiality to such studies. The book was placed in his hands ; not 
into. The field was planted with corn ; not to. He plunged into the water. He 
has a prejudice against the man. He has a prejudice in favor of the man. He 
presented her with a book. He presented a book to her, || She has profited by your 

* " He is au fait of these matters ;" not in or with. In French au fait is fol- 
lowed by de, of. " II est au fait de ces choses"— " He is up to the fact (thorough 
knowledge) of these things." 

f One who thinks of any city as merely a point, as it were, will speak of a per- 
son's living at that city ; but if by visiting the city, by examining plans and views, 
or by any other means he gains some knowledge of the interior, the same person 
will'speak of a person's living in that city. Whatever place presents itself to the 
mind as having an interior will suggest the employment of in. One who is familiar 
with even a small village will say that a person lives in that village. No one would 
say, " I saw him at Lisbon ;" for one who has been in any city naturally thinks of 
it as having an interior. " The court lay at Windsor." Windsor Castle is not in 
the town of Windsor. 

X " The passive verb am obliged should not be followed by the preposition to; 
we are obliged by, not to a person."— Burt's Pract. Eng. Gram. This is a mistake 
arising from" a misapprehension of the meaning of the word oblige. " I am obliged 
to you " means " I am bound to you." Falstaff says, "I am bound to thee, rev- 
erend Feeble," using bound in the sense in which we use obliged. "To whom I 
have been often bound for no less than my life." — Shakespeare. 

1 The verb present sometimes means make a present {ox presents) to; as, "Thou 
spendest thy time in waiting upon such a great one and thy estate in presenting 
him."— South. The word is used in this sense when we say, "He presented her 
with a book," book denoting the instrument with which the presenting was done. 
Though some have objected to this form, it is rather better than the form "He 
presented a book to her," being less liable to be ambiguous. When Petruchio 
says, "I do present you with a man of mine," he is understood to be making a 
present ; but " I do present a man of mine to you " might denote merely a formal 
introduction. 

Give the proper preposition instead of those incorrectly used in " There is no 
abatement in the disease " and passages following. 



230 SYNTAX. 

advice. He put his book in his pocket. {Put is seldom, place never, followed 
by into.) 

Try to reconcile him to his brother— to his fate. He knew how to reconcile lib- 
erality with prudence. You may rely on his fidelity. He remonstrated against 
this. They bear a great resemblance to each other. 

A sale by auction ; not at.* Be not solicitous about the future. He is solicitous 
for an office (something to be obtained). " Shall we sow the headland with 
wheat? With red wheat, Davy."— Shakespeare. 

7. Between and betwixt refer to two, among to more than two ; as, " He divided 
his books between his two sons;" "He divided his books among his three sons;" 
" The exact partition of power among king, lords, and commons."— Macaulay. 

8. In is often improperly used for into to denote entrance ; as, " He went in the 
house." " He ran in the garden " implies that he was already in the garden when 
he began to run ; " He ran into the garden " implies that he was out of the garden 
when he began to run. 

9. To denote the separation of any thing into parts into, to, and in are used. 
Into regards the state of separation as something that may be entered into; to 
regards the state as something that may be arrived at; in regards the state as 
something in which the thing may exist. When the number of parts or fit 
mentioned in is always used. "Break it into shatters."— Swift. " Break it all to 
pieces."— Shakespeare. "Break thou in pieces." —Id. "They were divided into 
little independent societies."— Locke. " Divide a minute into a thousand parts." — 
Shakespeare. " Divide the living child in two."— English Bible. " We have divided 
in three our kingdom."— Shakespeare. "All to shivers dashed."— Milton. " Cut me 
to pieces."— Shakespeare. "My leg is cut in two."— Id. "Lest Paul should have 
been pulled in pieces."— English Bible. 

10. In some places on is improperly used for in before the names of streets ; as, 
"He lives in Pittsburg on Wood Street."— Burfs Pract. Eng. Gram. "No. 137 on 
Walnut Street."— Harvey's Eng. Grammar. It is said that a house can not be in a 
street ; but certainly a house can not be on a street, in contact with the upper sur- 
face of a street. When we say that a certain bank is in Lombard Street we mean 
by street the space distinguished by the name of the paved way that passes through 
it, in which space the bank is situated. "The situation of a building, whether it 
were high or low, in an open square or in a narrow street." — Addison. "The 
captain proceeded to withdraw his men towards their guard-house in the Hi^h 
Street."— Scott. " This was a large wooden house built in a fashion of which there 
are specimens still extant in the streets of our older towns."— Hawthorne. " Friend 
Rawdon then drove on to Mr. Moss's mansion in Cursitor Street."— Thackeray. 
"The Merdle establishment in Harley Street. "—Dickens. 

11. Avoid the gross vulgarism of using to for a* to denote situation or presence; 
as, " He is up to the house ;" " I saw them do it over to Fred's."— Kcv. E. Kellogg. 

12. "I really doubt whether I shall write anymore viider this signature."— 
Junius. Some persons in America have attempted to introduce the barbarism 
"over this signature," supposing the preposition to be employed to point out the 
place of the signature in relation to the writing. It would not be more absurd to 
suppose that " He did it under the name of friendship " implies that the name of 
friendship was written over him. " Under his signature" implies that the si^na- 

^Sale by auction (by increasing), so called from the fact that each Btl 
bidder increases the price offered, i's a particular mode by which goods are dill 
of, as by barter denotes another mode. " Goods sold by auction."— Johnson. "Such 
is the sale by auction."— Beaitic. " In America the more prevalent expression has 
been 'sales at auction,' as it referring to the place where they are made. In 
England the form has always been 'sales by auction.' ('. c. by an" increase of bids 
(Latin auctione). This latter form is more correct, and is now coming into use in 
some of our leading newspapers."— Webster's Dictionary. 



PKEPOSITIONS. 231 

ture gives character, attestation, authority to the writing. Those who say "over 
his signature" should, to be consistent, say "given overmy hand and seal." "The 
first works which were published under my name." — Johnson. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the adjuncts and the antecedent terms: 
Our clock strikes when there is a change from hour to hour ; but no 
hammer in the horologe of Time peals through the universe when there 
is a change from era to era. — Carlyle. 

[Kemark 2.] In short, he is ruined. All that they did was piety 
to this. — Ben Jonson. We are ready to try our fortunes to the last 
man. — Shakespeare. 

To thee, sweet Eden, how dark and sad 
Are the diamond turrets of Shadukiam! — Moore. 
[Rem. 3.] Now shake from out thy fruitful breast the seeds 
Of envy, discord, and of cruel deeds. — Dry den. 

2. Correct the errors: 

[Eemark 6.] There was no abatement in the disease. He was 
accused with having done this. This was well adapted for the pur- 
pose. He is an advocate of war. He agreed with my proposal. This 
language is akin with that. Austria's alienation to British interests. — 
British Quarterly Review. They made an alteration of the coat. This 
is analogous with that. He is angry at her. She has a great antipathy 
for a dog. This was appropriate for his circumstances. I arrived to 
Newport in the night. Kobert and his schoolmates were ashamed at 
having called Henry a coward. 

You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving persons. — 
Swift. He blushed with shame. Some of the lower animals have a 
capacity of thinking. — Prof. Whitney. He conferred a favor to them. 
Do not confide on him. The government was deficient of means to 
carry on war. I will demand it from him. He died w T ith the measles. 
My father had gone when I returned, and so I was disappointed in the 
walk I expected to take with him. Joseph's pronunciation is very 
different to yours. 

They embarked on that ship. He was enamored with the lady. 
He enjoined to them the duty of helping the poor. The tale is founded 
in truth. He is friendly toward us. He inculcated this maxim into 
the mind of his son. He was initiated in the society. The enemy 
made an inroad in the country. He is insensible to shame. She 
insinuated herself in the queen's favor. You have need for recreation. 
You have done me a great favor, and I am much obliged by you. The 



232 SYNTAX. 

quarrel originated from a misunderstanding. She has a partiality for 
such persons. He placed the books into their hands. The rat plunged 
in the river. The field was planted to cotton. He had a prejudice to 
the woman. I have profited from your advice. He was reconciled 
with the man with whom he had quarreled. He is a man in whom you 
can not rely. To this General Badeau remonstrated. The twins have 
a great resemblance with each other. 

The property was sold at auction. He is solicitous for the future. 
Shall we sow the field to wheat? He divided the apples between John, 
James, and William. Is he a man in whom you can rely? Is he a 
man on whom you can confide? He fell in the ditch. The guests have 
gone in the dining-room. Break the stick into two. Divide the flour 
into three parts. There was not a window on the steep and crooked 
street called the Bow that was not absolutely filled with spectators. Our 
old friends the Crawleys' family-house on Great Gaunt Street. They 
came to a dirty shop-window on a dirty street. They are planting corn 
up to Mr. Kobinson's. He is up to home. This remarkable story is said 
to be founded in undoubted facts. He lives down to Mr. Kandolph's. 
An article over his own signature was published in the papers. Given 
over my hand and seal this first day of August. He has a very hand- 
some house on Bedford Square. 

RULE XII. 
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs; as, "He 
spoke distinctly;" "She is extremely cautious;" "I know him 
too well." 

Remarks.— 1. For adverbs seeming to modify nouns see Rem. 4, p. 132. Adverbs 
sometimes modify abstract nouns expressing action or being ; as, " I '11 break with 
your young wives of your departure hence."— Shakespeare. "Owen Glendower's 
absence thence."— Id. "His presence there would be of great sen-ice." For from 
ajar, etc., see Remark 15, p. 134. For after, before, etc., with propositions, see Rule 
VI, Remark 4. For the adverbs yet, also, etc., see Remark 10, p. 141. 

2. Adverbs sometimes modify adjuncts. (See Remark 5, p. 133.) They some- 
times modify virtual adjuncts with which the preposition is not expressed; as, 
"I have lived here nearly twenty years "=" I have lived here for nearly twenty 
years." 

3. The modified word is sometimes omitted ; as, " We in vain seek for a rem- 
nant of the valor [which was] once the terror of the world."— Chambers. " Finally 
[I say] the war has begun." "Up, Guards, and at them."— Wellington, 
spring or some such word is understood. " No remains of Grecian paintings have 
been preserved, [which has happened] unfortunately for the lovers of antiquity." 
Such passages are usually arranged in an inverted order; as, " Unfortunately for 
the lovers of antiquity, no remains," etc. 

Give the rule for adverbs? Give examples in which the modified word is omitted. 



ADVEEBS. 



233 



4. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs ; as, " If witb your inferiors, speak 
no coarser than usual ; if with your superiors, no finer." Here coarser and finer are 
intended to denote the manner of speaking, and they should be changed to more 
coarsely and more finely. " Her aged lover made her presents, but she hated him 
all the same." — R. G. White. Here the adjective same is improperly used to modify 
the verb hated. One gentleman meeting another said, "How are you?" "1 am 
tolerable," replied the other; "how are you?" "I am endurable too," was the 
answer. The gentleman used tolerable for tolerably well. 

5. Poets sometimes take the license of using adjectives for adverbs; as, " Swift 
fly the years."— Pope. 

6. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; as, "He arrived safely " for " He 
arrived safe." (See p. 210.) 

Above is sometimes used as an adjective, there being an ellipsis of mentioned, 
made, cited, or quoted; as, "The above [mentioned] statement." Then is sometimes 
used elliptically for then existing; as, "In his then [existing] situation."— Johnson. 

1. No before a noun is an adjective; as, "No man saw it." No is sometimes 
an adverb modifying an adjective in the comparative degree ; as, " She is no wiser 
than he." Here no is used for not. 

No is sometimes used for not after whether, if the verb is omitted ; as, " Whether 
they will walk in my law or no." — English Bible. This form has been much cen- 
sured by grammarians ; but it is used by good writers ; as, " La Bruyere has often 
painted single persons ; whether accurately or no we can not at this time deter- 
mine."— Hallam. "Whether a war for the propagation of Christianity be lawful 
or no. ' '—Bacon. ' ' Resolve whether you will or no. ' '—Shakespeare. 

Eor no in the answer to a question see Remark 9, p. 133. 

8. But has come to be used as an adverb in the sense of only; as, "Our light 
affliction, which is but for a moment." The original form is "which is not but 
(be out) for a moment." The use of but in the sense of only is confined to con- 
structions in which not has been omitted. Other negatives are expressed with but, 
and then but has its proper meaning; as, "No one but a villain would do so." 
With never it has its proper meaning ; as, "A person I never saw but twice."— Bulwer. 

" God is light, 
And never but in unapproached light 
Dwelt from eternity."— Milton. 
Some, from mistaking the meaning of but, avoid this construction and say, for 
instance, "A person I never saw more than once. 

9. In affirming equality as is used with the adjective ; as, " She is as foolish as 
he is." In denying equality so is used ; as, " She is not so foolish as he is." 

10. Among vulgar errors with respect to adverbs may be mentioned — 

(a) The use of most for almost; as, " He was most suffocated by the smoke." 
(6) The use of way for away ; as, " He lives way up the hill." 

(c) The use of like for as or as if ; as, "Read like (as) he does;" "She reads it 
like (as if) she did not understand it." Do not use the adverb like if you can not 
insert the preposition to after it. " Read like [to] him " is correct. (See p. 167.) 

(d) The use of directly for as soon as; as, " She went out directly he came in." 

(e) The use of illy for the adverb ill; as, " He is iUy able to bear the loss." 



Give examples of the improper use of 

adjectives for adverbs. 
Of adverbs for adjectives. 
What is no before a noun? 
Give examples in which no is used for 

not. 
How has but come to be used in the 

sense of only? 



20 



In what sense is it used with never? 

In affirming equality what adverb is 

used before the adjective? 
What in denying equality? 
Give an example of the improper use of 

most for almost. 
Of way for away. Of like for as ; as if. Of 

directly for as soon as. Of illy for ill. 



234 



SYNTAX. 



(/) The use of how or how that for that; as, " He said how he had seen them last 
night;" " He said how that he had seen them last night." 

{g) The joining of the adverb ever to an interrogative pronoun, making what is 
in appearance, but not in sense, a compound relative pronoun; as, "M 
would have thought it?" instead of " Who would ever have thought it?" In 
England particularly this vulgarism is becoming very common among slipshod 
writers. 

(h) The use of such vulgarisms as mighty fine for very fine, awful ugly for 
extremely tigly. 

(i) The use of two negatives to express a negation ; as, "I did not eat nothing" 
(no thing) for " I did not eat any thing " or " I ate nothing." " I did not eat noth- 
ing" denies that I ate nothing and implies that I ate something. 

11. Adverbs should be placed in such a way as to show clearly what words 
they are intended to modify. The same principle applies to adjuncts and other 
modifying expressions. 

"In the proper disposition of words the sound carefully requires to be con- 
sulted as well as the sense." The adverb carefully is intended to modify consulted, 
and it should be placed immediately before that word. 

"The sublime Longinus in somewhat a later period preserved the spirit of 
ancient Athens." — Gibbon. "In a somewhat later period." 

" Though some of the European rulers may be females, they may be correctly 
classified under the denomination of kings. "—Dean Alford. This means that the 
rulers may be classified in a correct manner; but the writer intended to say that 
it would be correct to classify them as kings, and he should have said, " They may 
correctly be classified." Correctly modifies may. 

" He might have easily caught the fox." Easily is intended to modify might, 
and it should be placed next to it. " He might easily have caught the fox." 

"Every one that begs is not poor." By the position of not this sentence is 
made to affirm that no beggar is poor. Not should be placed before every. " Not 
every one that begs is poor." 

" When we merely speak of numbers the verb is better singular."— Dean Alford. 
" When we speak of numbers merely." 

"The floor had been just washed."— Rev. J. G. Wood. This should be "The 
floor had just been washed." Just is an adverb of time, and in the compound 
tense had been washed it should be placed next to that part, had, which denotes the 
time. In "The floor had just been thoroughly washed" thoroughly is properly 
placed next to another part of the compound tense. 

"His Majesty was only shaved twice a week."— Swift. Only what? Not only 
shaved, but only twice a week. "In a large district he only found two carts."— 
Taine's Eng. Lit. Only what? Only two carts. "This verb is only used in the 
indicative mood." — Mason's Eng. Gram. Here should be "only in the Indicative 
mood " or " in the indicative mood only." " George Sand has only celebrated one 
passion."— Taine's Eng. Lit. Only what? Only one passion. " The termination 
of the possessive case is only affixed to the last of the names." — Mason's English 
Gram. Here should be " only to the last " or " to the last only." 

Alone (for only) is often misplaced: as, "Decorations and costumes of great 
splendor, of which the mythological paintings of Rubens can alone give an 
idea." — Taine's Eng. Lit. This means that the mythological paintings of Rubens 
can by themselves give an idea of these decorations and costumes; but the writer 



Give an example of the improper use of 

how that for that. 
Of the improper annexing of ever to an 

interrogative pronoun. 
Of the improper use of mighty, awful, etc. 



Give an example of the improper use of 

two negatives. 
How should adverbs be placed? 
Give examples of the violation of this 

principle. 



ADVERBS. 235 

intended to assert that nothing but these paintings can give an idea of these decora- 
tions and costumes, and he should have said, " Decorations and costumes of great 
splendor, of which only the mythological paintings of Rubens can give an idea." 

12. The adverb enough should always follow the adjective or adverb which it 
modifies ; as, " He spoke in a tone loud enough to be heard by all." 

13. It is generally inelegant to place an adverb between to and the simple 
form of the infinitive ; as, " He endeavored to faithfully perform his duty." This 
should be "He endeavored to perform his duty faithfully" or "He endeavored 
faithfully to perform his duty." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the adverbs and the words modified: 

Now came still evening on. Never can she be more happy. She 
was most gaudily dressed. The two friends were then walking rapidly 
down a very steep hill. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. Often 
have I seen them walking together. 

[Remark 1.] She is far from the land where her young hero sleeps. 
He went much against his inclination. That was greatly to his advan- 
tage. It turned almost every way. 

[Remark 3.] I learned this from a Mr. Thomson, formerly a citizen 
of Mobile. Have you ever seen him ? Never. Have you ever spoken 
to her? No. On, Stanley, on! 

[Remark 7.] No villain should enter here. She is no better than 
he is. No more, sweet Hamlet! No offer could be more acceptable. 
I do not know whether they are out or no. — Byron. Can I make men 
live, whether they will or no? — Shakespeare. 

2. Correct the errors: 

[Remark 4.] He spoke clear and distinct. She walks graceful. 
The soldier acted braver than the officer. He lives best who acts the 
noblest. The words nearest connected. — Dean Alford. A tolerable 
good fire. — Scott He writes beautiful. She is a remarkable handsome 
girl. He does his work good. 

[Remark 6.] She can not look gracefully in that dress. This con- 
struction sounds harshly. He makes often mention of those friends. 
This infinitive stands independently of the other words in the sentence. 

[Remark 9.] She is so timid as he is. She is not as timid as he is. 

[Remark 10.] The fire is most out. I have most finished my exer- 
cise. He walks like you do. He has gone way to the Rocky Mountains. 
It seemed like the wind would blow the house down. Directly I receive 
the letter I will go. It illy becomes him to talk so. He said how he 
had been badly treated. Whoever can understand him? That girl is 

What is said of placing an adverb between to and the simple form of the infinitive ? 



236 SYNTAX. 

mighty weak. That apple is awful sour. I do n't need no help. I 
can't find no paper. l>ocs he never drink nothing? I can not see to 
write no more. 

[Remark 11.] We must not expect to find study agreeable always. 
We should not be overcome by present events totally. We always 
should prefer our duty to our pleasure. They seemed to be nearly 
dressed alike. He made rather a short stay. The floor has thoroughly 
been swept. Every one that boasts of riches is not rich. All that 
glitters is not gold. The floor has been not washed. He can be cer- 
tainly elected. He can triumphantly be elected. 

Wanted a young man to take care of some horses of a religious 
turn of mind. The following verses were written by a young man who 
has long lain in the grave for his own amusement. At that time I 
wished some one would hang me a hundred times. A public dinner 
was given to the inhabitants of roast-beef and plum-pudding. He rode 
to town and drove twelve cows on horseback. She washed the plates 
with her old clothes and the tears in her eyes. [With her old clothes 
on her and the tears in her eyes, she washed the plates.] The beaux 
of that day used the abominable art of painting their faces, as well as 
the women. — I. Disraeli. These "shrieks" as" they have been called 
[exclamation-points], have been scattered up and down the page by 
compositors without any mercy. — Dean Alford. [Have been, without 
any mercy, scattered up and down the page.] 

We do not admit that a man only is an artist, and nothing else. — 
Taine's Eng. Lit. An article should only be used once before a complex 
description of one and the same object. — Mason's Eng. Gram. The 
grotesque characters, who are only introduced to fill up and to e 
laughter. — Taines Eng. Lit. The infinitive mood and the participle! 
of this verb are only used when it has the stronger of its two senses. — 
Mason 1 s Eng. Gram. 

[Remark 12.] He is not enough busy. You are too impassioned, 
and not enough inquisitive. — Taine's Eng. Lit. 

[Remark 13.] They are accustomed to carefully study their lessons. 
He does not like to often do it. 

RULE XIII. 

Conjunctions connect propositions or .similar parts of propo- 
sitions. 

Remarks.— 1. For illustrations and explanations see the etymology of con- 
junctions, pp. 138, 139, 140. 

What is the rule for conjunctions f 



CONJUNCTIONS. 237 

2. With both...and, either. ..or, and neither... nor the parts connected should, as 
nearly as possible, correspond in form ; as, "A position assailed with equal fury 
by all who were zealous eitlcer for the new or for the old opinions>" — Macaulay. 
Here " for the old opinions " corresponds to "for the new [opinions]." For eithei 
the new or the old opinions" would also preserve the correspondence. But 
"either for the new or the old opinions" destroys the correspondence. 

3. Or and nor are sometimes used by poets for either and neither; as, "Or by the 
lazy Scheldt or wandering Po." — Goldsmith. " I received nor rhyme nor reason." — 



. It is sometimes the case that a word or a collection of words common to two 
connected passages is expressed only once; as, "This has always been, and it 
always will be admired." Here admired is common to has been and will be (has 
been admired, will be admired). But " This always has, and always will be ad- 
mired " is not correct, because be admired is not common to the connected expres- 
sions (has be admired). "I always have, and always will endeavor to bring 
pleasure with me."— Scott. Endeavor does not belong to the first of the connected 
expressions. "I always have endeavored, and always will endeavor to bring 
pleasure with me." Here "to bring pleasure with me" is common to the two 
expressions. " Florence is more beloved, but not so much admired as Margaret " 
should be "Florence is more beloved than Margaret, but not so much admired 
[as Margaret]." 

5. After a negative which of the two conjunctions or and nor should be used 
to connect? Grammarians have differed much about this matter ; some, as Priest- 
ley and Murray, saying that " or or nor may, either of them, be used with nearly 
equal propriety." 

Nor should be used after neither or nor. The following sentence is incorrect : 
"It is neither acid or alkaline, it neither supports combustion or burns."— Wells's 
Chemistry. 

After negatives in general the speaker's choice will naturally be determined 
by the way in which the connected things present themselves to his mind. If 
they present themselves together, as if they were parts of one thing to be denied, 
he will naturally regard the negative as modifying the whole expression, and he 
will connect the parts by or; as, " Rome was not built in a day or destroyed in a 
day." Here the influence of not is felt through the whole expression. 

But if the second of the connected things presents itself as an addition to the 
first, the speaker will naturally use nor; as, "Rome was not built in a day, nor 
destroyed in a day." Here not modifies only the first part, and that which is 
added as a kind of second thought requires a negative. " Do not think that they 
have any mysterious goodness nor occult sublimity " — Euskin. Nor is incorrect. 
What we are not to think is that they have any mysterious goodness or occult 
sublimity. 

6. But as a conjunction generally connects propositions; as, "I go, but I 
return;" "He spoke to the mob, but I could not hear him." 

7. Nothing but conjunctions should be regarded as conjunctions* 

*Not only and but also are by some classified as "correlative conjunctions." 
This classification is one of the most remarkable productions of what may be 
called the huddling system. Not, only, and also are adverbs, each having a com- 
plete signification of its own; but the classification mentioned makes each of 



What is said concerning the parts con- 
nected by both... and, eitlier...or, and 
neitlier...nor? 

What are sometimes used for either and 
neither f 

Explain " This always has been and al- 
ways will be admired." 



What is the impropriety in "It is nei- 
ther acid or alkaline "? 

After negatives in general which of the 
conjunctions or and worshoukl be used? 

What does but connect? 

What only should be regarded as con- 
junctions? 



238 SYNTAX. 

For for this reason, in addition, etc., see Remark 8, p. 141. For in as much as, as 
'well as, etc., see Remark 9, p. 141. For yet, also, still, etc., see Remark 10, p. 141. 

Than connects, but it connects as a conjunctive adverb. (See Remark 17, p. 135.) 

Properly speaking, that is never a conjunction. Its office is described by calling 
it the article of the noun-proposition. (See foot-note, p. 196.) " That he is idle is 
true." Here that can not be said to connect; it serves merely to introduce the 
noun-proposition, and this is its office whether the noun-proposition is used as 
subject, as object, as predicate-nominative, as noun in the nominative absolute, 
or as noun in apposition. (See "Noun-propositions," p. 160.) An adjunct-propo- 
sition introduced by it is a noun-proposition, the implied preposition giving the 
proposition its adjunct character; as, "We eat [for] that we may live." 

That is sometimes used as an adverb; as, "Now that (when) all women of 
condition are well educated we hear no more of these apprehensions."— Coleridge 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the connections and the things connected : 
The dog in the manger would neither eat hay himself nor suffer 
the ox to eat it. John the Baptist came neither eating bread nor 
drinking wine. Though he became poor, he remained honest. A wise 
son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of his 
mother. I will take it, in as much as it is the best you can offer. She 
sings as well as plays.* I forgive you, unnatural though you are. He 
has a high character both for ability and for integrity. 

2. Correct the errors: 

[Remark 2.] I neither requested Jane nor Mary to go. Either 
you saw him or did not see him. Almost every noble quality owns 
Temperance either for its parent or its nurse. 

[Remark 4.] Such works always have, and always will be read. 
He is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as his com- 
panion. This preface may serve for almost any book that has, or • 
shall be published. The intentions of these philosophers might and 
probably were good. 

[Remark 5.] He did not think the minutes lagged too slow nor 
flew too fast. The water is neither cold or hot. I have neither paper, 
pen, or ink. He is without an outburst of emotion nor an accent of 
originality. — Taine's History of English Literature. 

these words nothing but an ingredient in a kind of grammatical pot-pourri. " He 
only preached this doctrine; he did not practice it." Onhj. adverb modifying 
preached. "He not only (merely) preached this doctrine, but he al.<o practiced it" 
Only, adverb modifying preached; not. adverb modifying only; but, conjunction; 
also, adverb modifying priv-timl. " He did not only preach," etc. Here not modi- 
fies did, and only modifies the infinitive preach. 

*"She sings as well as she plays." By the omission of the subject of the 
second verb a different meaning is given to the adverb wtll— "she sings as truly 
as she plays." 

What is said of than? What is said of thatt 



INTERJECTIONS. 



239 



KTJLE XIV. 
Interjections have no grammatical connection with other 
words. 

Remark.— Ah and {oh) are sometimes used with the objective me; as, "Ah 
me!" " O me!" But it is not the interjection that causes me to be in the objective ; 
for the objective me maybe used without the interjection; as, "Me miserable! 
which way shall I fly infinite wrath V— Milton. Me in such passages is an inde- 
pendent objective. 

For such constructions as " O that I were as in months past !" " O for a closer 
walk with God!" in which the interjection is used as what may be called a pro- 
proposition, see Remark 4, p. 142. 

EXERCISES. 

O sweet angel! Alas! he has left us! O! what a rapturous cry I 
for a spark of Allan's glee! 



MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS. 

1. The compound personal pronoun myself is often improperly used for the 
simple pronoun I; as, "Jane and myself went " instead of "Jane and I went." 

Those who use myself in this way think that by avoiding the use of I they 
avoid egotism ; but egotism consists in improperly thrusting one's self forward, 
not in the words employed. When it is proper for a person to speak of himself at 
all it is proper for him to use the honest I. Always say what you mean ; if you 
mean J, say I. To avoid the unemphatic I by using the emphatic myself is much 
like avoiding a shower by jumping into the river. 

2. Some say that in a descriptive relative proposition that should always be 
used, not who or which; as, " The boy that studies will learn." But it is equally 
correct to say, "The boy who studies will learn." The possessive whose and the 
objective whom are used in such propositions, and there is no valid objection to 
the use of the nominative. 

3. When a relative proposition is used to convey an additional idea who or which, 
not that, must be used; as, "He came to the town Cirta, which he immediately 
besieged." Here the relative proposition is employed, not to describe the town, 
but to express an additional idea, which being equivalent to and it {and he imme- 
diately besieged it). 

4. That is used in preference to who or which in the following cases : (a) After 
adjectives in the superlative degree ; as, Charles XII. was one of the greatest 
madmen that the world ever saw." (5) After same, very, and all: as, "He is the 
same man that I saw before ;" " He is the very boy that did the mischief ;" " It was 
all that he could do." (c) After who; as, "Who that knows him would say this?" 
{d) When the relative refers to both persons and things; as, " The men and cities 
that he saw." 

5. That should not be interchanged with tvho or which; as, "He is a man that 
is ready to make promises and who never performs them." Who should be that, or 
that should be who. 



What is the rule for interjections? 

In "Ah me!" what is me? 

What is said of the expression "Jane 

and myself "? 
Is it correct to say ' 'The boy who studies' '? 



What relative must be used when the 
proposition is to convey an additional 
idea? 

What is said of interchanging that with 
who or which? 



240 



SYNTAX. 



6. In modem speech thou and you belong to different styles, and they should 
not be interchanged ; as, 

But the rose was awake all night for your sake, 

Knowing your promise to me ; 
The lilies and roses were all awake ; 

They sighed for the dawn and thee.— Tennyson. 
Here thee is manifestly lugged in merely because it rhymes with me. 

7. A relative proposition intended to modify the subject should not be placed 
after a noun in the predicate, if this position would produce ambiguity or the 
appearance of ambiguity; as, "He should not attempt to teach a boy that is not 
fond of learning." " I am the man who command you " should be " I who com- 
mand you am the man." In "I am the man who commands you" the relative 
proposition modifies man. " Then men frowned at stage-plays who smiled at mas- 
sacres." Here the position causes no ambiguity. 

8. Than whom is an anomalous expression, which may have had its origin in 
an incorrect translation of the Latin ablative quo. 

9. General truths, real or alleged, are expressed by the present tense, no matter 
what may be the tense of the verb with which the proposition is connected; as, 
" He believed that there is but one god." This principle is often violated ; as, " The 
missionary endeavored to inculcate the truth that there was but one god."— Reade. 
"I had never known before how short life really was." — Dickens. " We then fell 
into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent of utility. The General 
maintained that there was not; Dr. Johnson maintained that there was."—BoswelL. 

10. Such passages as the following contain still greater errors ; because, though 
the verbs in the principal propositions are past in form, they are present in - 
"What is the law? I wish I knew what the law really was."— Scott. "It might 
be supposed at first sight that this way of speaking was indefensible."— Dean Afford. 
" I should say there was a strong connection between the Scottish temperament 
and humor." — Dean Ramsay. 

11. When a speaker uses the present tense in relating what is past he is sup- 
posed to do so merely because the events seem to be passing before him. 
Remark 3, p. 7G.) It is inconsistent to use the past tense in connection with such 
a present ; as, " The officer rushes upon him and struck him with his sword." The 
following passage is faulty: 

But now secure the painted vessel glides, 
The sunbeams trembling on the floating tides; 
While melting music steals upon the sky, 
And softened sounds along the waters die; 
Smooth flow the waves, the zephyrs gently j>lay, 
Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay.— Pope. 

12. The past tense is sometimes improperly used for might, should, or would, 
with the infinitive; as, " King John, feeling that in any case, whatever uxis done 
afterward, it would be a satisfaction to his mind to have those handsome eyes 
burnt out." Should be or might be, not was. (See Remark 12, p. 77.) 

13. Should we say " To-morrow is Wednesday " or " To-morrow will be Wednes- 
day?" As we wish to express an abstract truth rather than a future event, the 



What is said of interchanging thou and 
youf 

What caution about the position of rela- 
tive propositions? 

What is said of than whomt 

What is said of such expressions as "I 
had never known before how short 
life really wasn't 



What of such expressions as " Tli 
rushes upon him and struck him with 
li is swora "' '.' 

How is tin- past tense sometimes improp- 
erly used '.' 

Should we sav "To-morrow is Wednes- 
day" or "To-morrow will be Wednes- 
day"? 



MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS. 241 

first form seems preferable. Shakespeare uses this form: "Wednesday is to- 
morrow." — Borneo and Juliet. "To-morrow is the wedding-day." — Taming of the 
Shrew. "Is not to-morrow, boy, the ides of March?" — Julius Caesar. "To-morrow 
is the joyful day, Audrey." — As You Like It. "To-morrow is St. Crispian." — 
Henry V. "To-morrow is her birthday.'' — Pericles. 

14. "A proper selection of faulty composition is more instructive than any 
rules and examples." Some assert that in the latter part of such sentences as this 
the verb should be expressed, because there is required a form different from that 
which is used in the other part; as, "A proper selection of faulty composition is 
more instructive than are any rules and examples." Strict adherence to such a 
rule as this would make the style intolerably stiff and pedantic. There is no 
foundation for such a rule in either reason or usage. The assertion that if the 
verb is not expressed in the latter part of the sentence it is understood as it 
appears in the former part is absurd. The verb is understood in its proper form. 
" Dire was the tossing, deep the groans." — Milton. 

15. One of the worst vulgarisms is the use of had have for had in the past- 
perfect tense; as, "Oh, Burgo, hadst thou not have been a very child!"— A. 
Trollope. 

16. In conditions or suppositions expressing uncertainty whether the thing 
supposed does or does not exist and relating to present time the indicative mood 
is used; as, "If he has the money, he will pay it." If the thing supposed is 
something that may occur in future time, slmll or should with the infinitive is 
used; as, "If he should have the money to-morrow, he will pay it." 

Shall and should are sometimes omitted; as, "If he have the money." (See 
Remark 3, p. 88.) Here we have the so-called " present subjunctive,'- which never 
denotes present time. It is generally better to express shall or should. The indic- 
ative present is often used in expressing suppositions of this kind ; as, "If he has 
the money to-morrow." 

17. To express a supposition implying that the thing supposed does not exist 
and referring to present time we employ the past tense, and to express the con- 
clusion might, could, would, or should with the imperfect infinitive ; as, "If he had 
the money, he would pay it." 

To express a supposition referring to past time we employ the past -perfect 
tense, and to express the conclusion might, could, woidd, or shoidd with the perfect 
infinitive; as, "If he had had the money, he would have paid it." 

18. The singular forms were and wert refer to present time only ; as, " He looks 
as if he were an honest man." (See Remark 10, p. 77.) It is not correct to say, 
" He looked as if he were an honest man." " He looked as if he had been, an honest 
man " might mean that his appearance indicated that before that time he had been 
an honest man, not that he was an honest man at that time. It is best in such 
cases to use the simple past tense; as, " He treated one or two remarks she made 
as if she was an idiot." — Thackeray. 

The following are instances of the incorrect use of the conditional form: 
" Being doubtful of his way, he inquired if he were on the right way to Dunkeld." 
—Bean Ramsay. " I can not tell whether I were more pleased or mortified to ob- 
serve that the smaller birds did not appear to be at all afraid of me."— Swift. 

19. Was is sometimes improperly used for were; as, " I wish I was where Anna 
lies."— G 



What is said of using had have for had f 
What is said of such expressions as "If 

he has the money, he will pay it " ? 
What is used if the thing supposed is 

something that may occur in future 

time ? 
Is shall or should always expressed ? 

21 



What is said of "If he had the money, 
he would pay it " ? Of " If he had had 
the money, he would have paid it " ? 

What is said of such expressions as, " He 
looks as if he were an honest man " ? 

Give an example of the improper use of 
was for were. 



242 SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following examples: 

[Kemark 1.] He gave the book to John and myself. You or 
myself must do it. 

[Kemark 3.] He came to the city of Calais, that immediately 
opened the gates to him. 

[Remark 4.] It is the best which can be obtained. It is the same 
horse which you saw yesterday. It was all which he had to give. 
The man and the dog which we saw have disappeared. Who who 
has any regard for his character would act thus? 

[Remark 5.] The lady that taught you and who was so kind to 
you has left us. 

[Remark 6.] O Abudah! for four days thou hast slept upon this 
sofa, and we thought you were dead. — Tales of the Genii. 

[Remark 7.] He should not keep a carriage that has to stay in the 
house. He needs no spectacles that can not see. 

[Remark 9.] Master Charles Bates, appalled by Sikes's crime, fell 
into a train of reflection whether an honest life was not, after all, the 
best. Arriving at the conclusion that it certainly was, he turned his 
back upon the scenes of his past life. — Dickens. 

[Remark 10.] It might be supposed that his conduct was irre- 
proachable; but it is not. I wish I could hear what he was saying. 
I should say that he was an honest man. I do not know him well, but 
I should think he was a man of truth. No one would say that there 
was any thing particularly repugnant to the character of a gentleman 
in that. — Saturday Review. 

[Remark 11.] The boy hears the noise and hid himself in the thicket. 

[Remark 12.] A man who said ill-natured things might be a worse 
man than one who called his neighbor a fool or a liar. — Sat. Rt 
He requested her to repeat it again and again till he understood it. 

[Remark 15.] If I had have seen him, I would have spoken to 
him. If he had have been here, he might have seen his friend. Had 
you have been with us, our pleasure would have been much greater. 

[Remark 18.] He laid hands on Mr. Pogram as if he were taking 
his measure for a coat. — Dickens. I could not tell whether he were in 
earnest or not. It was an age of revolutions, and none ventured to 
ask whether the commission were legal or whether it were legally 
discharged. — Merivale. 

[Remark 19.] I wish I was a better scholar. I wish our merry 
friend was here. 



PUNCTUATION. 243 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation treats of the points and marks used in written 
language. 

The chief use of the points is to show more clearly the 
relation between the different parts of the discourse. 

The principal points are the period [.], the comma [,], 
the semicolon [;], and the colon [:]. 

Remarks. — 1. These points should not be regarded as intended to denote 
pauses. They are grammatical, not elocutionary points. As they point out the 
relation which the different parts of the discourse sustain to each other, they 
assist the reader in making the proper pauses ; hut this should be regarded as 
merely a secondary use, with which grammar has nothing to do. A point is some- 
times to be used where no pause is to be made ; as in yes, sir, and no, sir; and a 
pause is often to be made where no point is admissible; as, "Prosperity gains 
friends, but adversity tries them." Here a pause must be made after prosperity 
and after adversity ; but no point is admissible. 

2. In the use of the points there is great diversity, which has arisen chiefly 
from confounding two distinct things. If the points are regarded in their proper 
character, as merely indicating the relations existing between the different parts 
of the discourse, the subject is greatly simplified. 

" The respect which we justly feel for Clarendon as a writer must not blind us 
to the faults which he committed as a statesman." — Macaulay. One who regards 
the points as intended to denote pauses would place a comma after writer, a pause 
being necessary in reading ; but one who regards only the relation of the parts of 
the sentence would insert no point, the grammatical relation between the subject 
and the predicate being too intimate to admit of separation. 

THE PEKIOD. 

The period marks the close of a sentence; as, "Fear God. 

Honor the king. Have charity toward all men." 

Remarks.— 1. As every part of a continuous discourse is connected with the 
other parts, it is sometimes difficult to decide where the separation is such as to 
require to be marked by the period. Two things which one person would regard 
as so distinct as to require to be expressed in two sentences may to another seem 
so closely connected as to require to be expressed in one sentence. When a writer 
is in doubt as to the closeness of connection between two ideas he will of course 
be in doubt as to the point to be used. 

2. A period is sometimes placed even before conjunctions ; as, " The amount 
of treasure in the Capital did not equal the sanguine expectations that had been 
formed by the Spaniards. But the deficiency was supplied by the plunder which 
they had collected at various places on their march." — Prescott. 

3. This point is used after abbreviations; as, "J. Smith, Esq., addressed the 
meeting." In this use the period is merely a mark of abbreviation, having noth- 

What is punctuation? The principal points? 

Chief use of the points ? I What does the period mark ? 



244 PUNCTUATION. 

ing to do with the division of the discourse. The same points follow it that would 
be used if the word were written in full ; as, "An address was delivered by J. 
Smith, Esq., who was frequently applauded." If the abbreviation is at the end 
of a sentence, however, the same point answers to mark both the abbreviation 
and the close of the sentence. 

EXERCISES. 

Transcribe the following, inserting a period wherever required and making 
the letter after the period a capital letter: 

In a little thatched cottage near a thrifty forest lived a hard- 
working couple the husband was a fagot-maker, and the wife used 
to spend all her spare time in spinning they had only one child, a 
little daughter, who was about eight years old she was a handy little 
maid, who wished to do every thing she could to assist her mother she 
was an early riser she helped her mother in getting ready her father's 
breakfast before he went to work after breakfast she made every thing 
in the house tidy and orderly she would go on short errands for her 
mother her grandmother had made for her a little red hood the little 
red hood looked so bright and smart among the green trees that it 
could always be seen a long way off. 

THE COMMA. 

I. The principal use of the comma is to separate the propo- 
sitions of a compound or a complex sentence; as, "Life is 
short, and art is long;" "Phocion was poor, though he might 
have been rich;" "Phocion, though he might have been rich, 
was poor." In this last sentence the proposition though he 
might have been rich is cut off by a comma before and a comma 
after it. 

II. As a noun-proposition performs the office of a noun, it 
should not be cut off from the word with which it is connected 
when a noun performing the same office would not be cut off. 

Therefore a noun-proposition should not be cut off when it is — 

1. Subject of a verb; as, "That he will succeed is evident." 

2. Object of a transitive verb; as, "I believe that he will succeed." 

Remark.— Noun-propositions which are the objects of such verbs as say, cry, 
exclaim, reply are cut off when they contain the words spoken ; as, " He said, ' I will 
come.' " But when the substance only is given the comma is not used ; as, " He 
said that he would come." 

The principal use of the comma? [ What is said of noun-propositions which 

When should a noun-proposition not be are the objects of such verbs as say, 
cut off? cry, etc ? 



THE COMMA. 



245 



3. Predicate -nominative; as, "The general belief is that he will 
succeed." 

4. Object of a preposition; as, "This will depend on how it is done." 

III. An adjective-proposition which describes is not cut off; 
as, "The girl who is always laughing shows want of sense." 
Here who is always laughing describes the girl that shows want 
of sense. 

But if the proposition presents an additional idea, it is cut off; as, 
" He went up to a large and beautiful house, which he entered." 

" I went to California with my cousin who had been there before." 
"I went to California with my cousin, who had been there before." 
In the former sentence who had been there before points out what cousin 
is meant ; it assumes something. In the latter sentence the same prop- 
osition is employed to assert something additional. 

" The girls, who went to school with her, were very fond of her." 
This represents all " the girls " as going to school with her. The writer 
meant to say, " The girls who went to school with her were very fond 
of her." 

" By this scimitar, that slew the Sophy and a Persian prince, that 
won three fields of Sultan Solyman." " By this scimitar, that slew the 
Sophy and Persian prince that won three fields of Sultan Solyman." 
The former punctuation represents the sword as having won the three 
fields ; the latter represents the Persian prince as having won them. 

IV. Adjunct-propositions should not be cut off when the 
equivalent adjuncts should not be cut off; as, "He is anxious 
that you should succeed "=" He is anxious for your success." 

" He did not go because you commanded him " asserts that the going 
was not caused by the command. " He did not go, because you com- 
manded him " first denies the going, then gives the reason for his not 
going. 

Remark.— The semi-colon is often employed to set off a proposition giving the 
reason. 

V. The punctuation of adverb-propositions is governed by 
the same principles that govern the punctuation of adjective- 
propositions and adjunct-propositions. When the proposition 
asserts something it is cut off; when it assumes something it is 

By what is the punctuation of adverb- 
propositions governed ? 
When the proposition asserts something? 
When it assumes something? 



246 PUNCTUATION. 

not cut off; as, "He was walking over the bridge, when a 
soldier met him;" "He was walking over the bridge when 
the soldier met him." The first w1ien= " at which time;" the 
second when= "at the time at which." 

VI. The comma cuts off whatever is equivalent to a propo- 
sition; as — 

1. The nominative absolute with the words closely connected with 
it; as, "His horse being unmanageable, he dismounted." Here "his 
horse being unmanageable "=" as his horse was unmanageable." 

2. The infinitive with the words closely connected with it in such 
expressions as "To confess the truth, I was in fault." Here "to confess 
the truth "=" that I may confess the truth." 

3. An expression introduced by an adjective and equivalent to a 
proposition; as, "The mother, happy in attending to her children, 
desired no change." Here "happy in attending to her children "= 
"because she was happy in attending to her children." 

4. Such expressions as however, no doubt, besides, unfortunately, nay, 
more, moreover, by the bye, in the first place, secondly, in a word, well, 
why, most of which are parts of propositions of which the other words 
are omitted; as, "He made every effort; he did not, however, succeed." 
Here however is part of a proposition, "however this may be." "He 
will, no doubt, succeed." Here no doubt is part of a proposition, "there 
is no doubt." " Unfortunately, he was interrupted." Here unfortunately 
is part of a proposition, " what (or which) happened unfortunately." 

VII. The comma cuts off the nominative independent ; as, 
"John, you may go to your seat;" " He of himself, poor man, 
can make nothing of it;" "Continue, my dear child, to walk 
in the path of virtue." 

VIII. When another name for an object is introduced by 
or a comma is placed before or; as, "This cage contains the 
giraffe, or camelopard." 

IX. If a noun in apposition is annexed for the purpose of 
asserting something additional, it is cut off, being in sense 
equivalent to a proposition; "A son, John, was born after his 
death." Here John is introduced in such a way as to add to 

Mention some expressions which, being I What of the punctuation of the nom. 
equivalent to propositions, are cut oft' independent? of another Dame intro- 
by the comma. | duced by ort Of nouns in apposiUou? 



THE COMMA. 247 

the idea of the birth of the son an additional idea, "whose 
name was John," or "I mean John." "Hope, the balm of 
life "=" Hope, which is the balm of life." 

But if a noun is annexed in such a way as to express something 
assumed rather than asserted, or something forming as it were part of 
the name, it is not cut off; as, "His son John was born after his death;" 
"The Apostle Paul;" "The Emperor Augustus." 

X. When words are arranged in pairs the comma should 
separate the pairs from one another; as, "It lives in the heart 
of every Swiss, high and low, young and old, gentle and 
simple." 

XI. The comma is sometimes employed to prevent miscon- 
ception of the meaning; as, "Those that escaped being killed 
at once turned and fled." Here at once may modify either 
being hilled or turned and fled. A comma after at once would 
show that at once modifies being killed; a comma before at once 
would show that this adjunct modifies turned and fled. 

An expression having the same relation to each of two or more 
other expressions is cut off from them; as, "Philosophy makes us 
wiser, Christianity makes us better, men." The comma after better 
shows that men is modified by wiser as well as by better. 

XII. Where there is an ellipsis of a verb a comma may be 
placed, if without the comma there would be obscurity; as, 
"Power reminds you of weakness; permanency, of change; 
life, of death." 

But the comma is generally unnecessary ; as, " In prosperity he was 
too much elated, and in adversity too despondent;" "Plants are formed 
by culture, and men by education." 

XIII. If a conjunction is omitted between two or more 
words in the same construction, a comma is put in the place 
of the conjunction; as, "He is a plain, honest man"="He is 
a plain and honest man;" "He is a plain, honest, straight- 
forward man." 

What of words arranged in pairs? I What punctuation where there is an 

Give an instance of a comma employed ellipsis of the verb? 
to prevent misconception. | What when conjunctions are omitted ? 



248 



PUNCTUATION. 



If the conjunction is expressed between only the two last of several 
words in the same construction, the comma separates the two ! 
well as the others; as, "He is a plain, honest, and straightforward 
man." If the comma were not placed between the two last 
they would seem to the eye to be more closely connected with each 
other than with the preceding word. 

Remark.— When three or more words are in the same construction some sepa- 
rate them from one another, whether the conjunctions are omitted or expressed ; 
as, " He is a plain, and honest, and straightforward man." But tins punctuation 
is stiff, and there is no good reason for using the comma where no conjunction is 
omitted. "Light and music and high-swelling hearts." — Carlyle. "All courage 
and love and honor." — Thackeray. "Light and gayety and hope and health and 
joy."— Dickens. " Both man and bird and beast."— Coleridge. 

XIV. In a compound subject a comma should not be placed 
between the last of the nouns and the verb; as, "Painting, 
poetry, and music are fine arts." 

XIV. If' an adverb, an adjunct, or other expression is out 
of its natural place, some cut it off by the comma; as, "To 
perseverance, every thing is possible." There is no good rea- 
son for this punctuation ; for, though there is a pause after the 
adjunct, the grammatical relation is not changed by the posi- 
tion. "With the fear and hatred inspired by such a tyranny 
contempt was largely mingled." — Macaulay. 

XVI. The subject, however long it may be, should not be 
cut off from the predicate. "It is not conformable to the 
principles of our government to make that vain display of 
military authority which disgusts us so much in some conti- 
nental kingdoms. " — Hallam. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Punctuate the following: 

[I.] Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and wise 
men use them. They shrunk from no dangers and they feared no hard- 
ships. Cast out the scorner and contention shall go out. 

[VI.] The king being insane his son was appointed regent. To say 
the least they have shown great want of prudence. The young man 



What is said of the punctuation when 
the conjunction is not omitted? 

What is saitl al>out placing a comma be- 
tween the last word oi a compound 
subject and the verb? 



What of the punctuation when an ad- 
verb or other expres*ion is out of its 
natural place? 

What is said of punctuation between 
the subject and predicate? 



THE COMMA. 249 

diligent in the performance of every duty gained the confidence of his 
employers. Unfortunately for us the tide was already ebbing. They 
will no doubt with reasons answer you. Lastly strive to preserve a 
conscience void of offense. 

[ VII.] James wait for me. Those happy days whither have they 
fled? Hamlet thou hast thy father much offended. I can not my dear 
friend do all that you desire but I will do all that is in my power. 

[ VIII.] The period or full stop denotes the end of a sentence. "We 
saw a large opening or inlet. 

[IX.] The capital of Turkey Constantinople is finely situated. 
Diogenes the Greek philosopher lived in a tub. 
[X.] For Komans in Rome's quarrel 
Spared neither land nor gold 
Nor son nor wife nor limb nor life 
In the brave days of old. 
[XI.] Those to whom he did not speak immediately left the house. 
He can walk and run too. 

[XII.] He was a brave generous man. He was a brave wise and 
pious man. The spirit of true religion is social kind and cheerful. 

2. Correct the errors: 

[ I.] He ran off, as fast as he could. And spend, in idleness or mis- 
chief, the time which ought to be spent in study. Charles called at the 
hut of this fisherman, one day. Lord Palmerston then entered on his 
head, a white hat upon his feet, large but well-polished boots upon his 
brow, a dark cloud in his hand, his faithful walking-stick in his eye, a 
menacing glare saying nothing. He sat down. 

[II.] That you have not studied, is evident. I know, how you 
obtained the prize. The general belief is, that he was deceived. The 
poor woman felt, that she was indeed left alone in her desolate home. 
What is left, is due to me in right of my office. It was not right, that 
Mary should care for nothing but such things as these. 

[ III.] Questions, which can not be answered by yes or no, take the 
falling inflection. He is trying to leave me behind him which he can 
not do. The child was much attached to Mary who loved him dearly. 
The child was much attached to one, who loved him so dearly. 

[ IV.] He was pleased, that you called to see him. You ought to be 
ashamed, that you have lost so much time. I did not go from home, 
because he was coming [I went, but not for that reason]. I did not 
go from home because he was coming [I staid at home, and for that 
reason]. 



250 PUNCTUATION. 

[ V.] A little girl lived in a place, where there were a great many 
goats. We shall always be happy, when we do our duty. He went to 
a large city where he spent all his money. A word is said to be empha- 
sized, when it is uttered with force. 

[VI.] The bluebirds having come we may expect some pleasant 
weather. To come to the point he can not free himself from blame. 
James awkward in his person was not qualified to command respect. 
In short he is too ambitious. He could not however be elected. 

[ VII.] Doctor you have come too late. Do my dear friend let me 
hear from you. It cometh not again that golden time. 

[ VIII.] This bird is the celebrated osprey or fish-hawk. 

[IX.] Mohammed was a native of Mecca a city of Arabia. The 
poet, Milton, became blind. 

[XI.] We often commend, as well as censure imprudently. It is 
the duty of a child to obey, not to direct his parents. 

[ XIII.] Blind to all our claims, and woes, and wrongs. They only 
sniff, and titter, and snigger from the throat outward. 

[XV.] In youth, shun the temptations to which youth is exposed. 
In perusing the works of such writers, we are obliged to think. By 
reading, we add the experience of others to our own. 

[ XVI.] A steady and undivided attention to one object, is a sure 
mark of a superior mind. The most obvious remedy, is to withdraw 
from all association with bad men. 

' THE SEMICOLON. 

I. The semicolon separates from the principal proposition 
something not so closely connected with it as portions set off 
by the comma would be. 

II. Generally speaking, the portion set off by a semicolon 
before it is a proposition complete in itself and expressing 
something formally added as a contrast, a reason, an infer- 
ence, a result, or some related idea; as, "There is a fierce 
conflict of good and evil; but good is in the ascendant and 
must conquer at last." "Never value yourself upon your 
riches; for this is the sign of a weak mind." "He is not 
good; therefore he is not great." "His mother and his aunt 

What is the office of the semicolon ? I What is the character of the portion set 
I off by the semicolon ? 



THE SEMICOLON. 251 

have indulged him in every thing; so that he has become 
insufferably vain and selfish." 

III. Propositions which would otherwise be separated by 
the period are sometimes separated by the semicolon, because 
some general thought connects the ideas expressed; as, "She 
hath killed her beasts ; she hath mingled her wine ; she hath 
also furnished her table." Here the general idea of a feast 
runs through the propositions, preventing so great a separation 
as would be denoted by the period. 

IV. The semicolon is used to separate parts of sentences 
when these parts, or any of them, consist of portions separated 
from each other by the comma; as, "The dome of Agrippa, 
still glittering with bronze; the mausoleum of Adrian, not 
yet deprived of its columns and statues; the Flavian amphi- 
theatre, not yet degraded into a quarry, told the Mercian 
and Northumberland pilgrims some part of the story of that 
great civilized world which had passed away." — Macaulay. 

Remark.— Some would use a dash as well as a comma after quarry. 

V. Particulars introduced in such a way as to cause the 
mind to dwell on each particular are separated by the semi- 
colon; as, "A traveller must be freed from all apprehension 
of being murdered or starved before he can be charmed by the 
bold outlines and rich tints of the hills. He is not likely to be 
thrown into ecstacies by the abruptness of a precipice from which 
he is in danger of falling two thousand feet perpendicular; by 
the boiling waves of a torrent which suddenly whirls away his 
baggage and forces him to run for his life; by the gloomy 
grandeur of a pass where he finds a corpse which marauders 
have just stripped and mangled ; by the screams of those eagles 
whose next meal may probably be on his own eyes." — Macaulay. 
Here the repetition of the preposition by serves to introduce 
the particulars in a more formal manner, thus causing the 
mind to dwell on each one. 

Whyare propositions which would other- i Why is the semicolon used in " The 
wise be separated by the period some- | dome of Agrippa," etc? 
times separated by the semicolon ? | Why in "A traveller must be freed," etc ? 



252 PUNCTUATION, 

VI. A general term having several particulars in apposition 
with it is separated from the particulars by the semicolon, and 
the particulars are separated from one another by the comma; 
as, "There are four genders; the masculine, the feminine, the 
common, and the neuter." 

VII. As introducing a sentence as an illustration is preceded 
by a semicolon and followed by a comma. t 

VIII. If yes or no in the answer to a question is followed by 
a proposition, it is generally separated from the proposition by 
the semicolon; as, "Yes; he said he would come;" "No; I 
know nothing about it." 

EXERCISES. 

Punctuate the following: 

[ II.] The buds spread into leaves and the blossoms swell to fruits 
but they know not how they grow. Why Dr. Johnson this is not so 
easy as you seem to think for if you were to make little fishes talk you 
would make them talk like whales. 

[ III.] Every thing grows old every thing passes away every thing 



[ I V.] There was the honest cock-robin, the favorite game of stripling 
sportsmen, with its loud, querulous note and the twittering blackbirds, 
flying in sable clouds and the golden-winged woodpecker, with his 
splendid plumage and the cedar-bird, with its red-tipped wings and 
yellow-tipped tail, and its little montero cap of feathers and the blue 
jay, that noisy coxcomb, in his gay, light-blue coat and white under- 
clothes, screaming and chattering, nodding and bobbing and bowing 
and pretending to be on good terms with every songster of the grove. 

[V.] He delighted to read descriptions of countries devastated by 
war of cities destroyed by fire of regions depopulated by the plague. 

[VI.] There are three cases the nominative the possessive and the 
objective. There are six tenses the present the present-perfect the past 
the past-perfect the future and the future-perfect. 

[VIL] There should be no point between the factitive objective and 
the verb as Plutarch calls lying the vice of slaves. 

[VIII.] Did you see him? No I could not find him. Haw yen 
ever been in Mobile? Yes I was there last winter but I remained only 
a few days. 

Why is the semicolon used in "There I What punctuation with cut 
are four genders," etc ? | What punctuation with yes and no f 



THE COLON. 253 

THE COLON. 

I. The colon sets off a proposition not formally connected 
with the preceding part of the sentence; as, 

My father lived "beside the Tyne; 

A wealthy lord was he; 
And all his wealth was marked as mine: 

He had hut only me. — Goldsmith. 

Remark.— The last line gives a reason without being formally connected with 
what goes before. If for had been expressed, thus making a formal connection, 
the semicolon should have been used instead of the colon. 

II. An unconnected proposition expressing in another form 
what has been previously expressed is set off by the colon; as, 
"But Goldsmith had no secrets: his follies, his weaknesses, 
his errors, were all thrown to the surface." — Irving. 

LU. A proposition containing a general statement, if fol- 
lowed by propositions separated by semicolons and giving 
particulars as illustrations,* should have a colon after it; as, 
"He disposed of his time with great regularity: in his garden 
he limited himself to one hour twice a day; in reading books 
of amusement he limited himself to one hour after breakfast 
and another in the evening." 

IV. The colon is used before a quotation not introduced as 
the object of a verb; as, "He spoke as follows: 'I am lost in 
wonder at this infatuation. I see before me,'" etc.; "Fierce 
he broke forth : 'And dar'st thou then,' " etc. 

Remark. — After say, reply, exclaim, cry, or other verb of the kind, the quotation 
is the object of the verb, and it is separated from the verb by the comma. Though 
there may be more than one sentence in the quotation, still the comma is used, 
the whole quotation being taken as a unit ; as, "Retiring to his chamber, he said to 
Rapp, ' Misfortunes never come singly. This event fills up the measure of evil here.'" 

V. The colon is used when such expressions as the following 
point forward to something; as, "Punctuate the following: 
John, give it to me." 

* Genus and species. 

What is the office of the colon? I Of " He disposed of his time," etc. 

Explain the punctuation of the sen- When isthecolonused before a quotation? 

tence, "But Goldsmith had no se- What punctuation with such expressions 

crets," etc. I as the following f 



254 PUNCTUATION. 

VI. The colon is used also after a formal address at the 
beginning of a speech; as, "Ladies and gentlemen: The sub- 
ject before us is one of great importance," etc. Also after a 
formal address at the beginning of a letter; as, "My Dear 
Friend: You do not know how anxious I am to hear from 
you," etc. 

Remark.— The formal address is generally placed in a line by itself. 

EXERCISES. 

Punctuate the following: 

[ I.] Study to acquire a habit of thinking no study is more impor- 
tant. Avoid affectation it is a contemptible weakness. Be on thy 
guard against flattery it is an insidious poison. 

[ II.] He was generous and inconsiderate money with him had no 
value. Laziness grows on people it begins in cobwebs and ends in iron 
chains. They talked of their murderous exploits as a sportsman talks 
of his amusements to shoot down a traveler seemed of little more con- 
sequence to them than to shoot down a hare. 

[III.] The Scottish people had always been singularly turbulent 
and ungovernable they had butchered their first James in his bed- 
chamber they had repeatedly arrayed themselves in arms against 
James the Second they had slain James the Third on the field of 
battle their disobedience had broken the heart of James the Fifth they 
had deposed and imprisoned Mary they had led her son captive. 

[ IV.] His speech was as follows " I have not come to waste your 
time," etc. He folded his arms, and thus he spoke " My manors, halls, 
and bowers," etc. 

[ Kemark.] He said " I will wait for you here. Come back as soon 
as you can." "Turning to Graham, she added 'Will you help to make 
way for us?' " 

[V.] She found in his pockets the following articles an apple, etc. 
Friends and fellow-citizens On this beautiful day, etc. 

THE INTERROGATION-POINT. 
I. The interrogation-point, or note of interrogation, marks 
the end of a question; as, ''Of what parentage are you?" 
"He said, 'Of what parentage are you?'" 

Remark.— This point is to be used only with direct questions. " He asked me 
of what parentage I was." Here is not a question, but merely an assertion that 
a question was asked. 

What punctuation after a formal ad- I What is the office of the interrogation- 
dress? | point? 



THE EXCLAMATION-POINT. 



255 



II. The interrogation -point is generally equivalent to a 
period and followed by a capital letter; as, "Do you confess 
so much? Give me your hand." But sometimes the degree 
of separation is no greater than that marked by the comma or 
the semicolon; as, "Will you sit down? and we two will rail 
against the world." 

III. In a series of connected questions the interrogation- 
point should be used after each complete question; as, "What 
said he ? How looked he ? Did he ask for me ?" But when 
two or more questions are arranged as one, no answer being 
expected till after the last, this point is used after the last 
only; as, "Hath he said it, and will he not do it?" "Will 
you go, or will you stay?" 

EXERCISES. 

Punctuate the following: 

[ I.] Why did you cry When did you come How long have you 
been here Knowest thou the land where the citrons bloom 

[Eemark.] They asked me why I cried Tell me when you came 
John asked me when I came You ask me whether I have read Milton 

[II.] Marked ye his words he would not take the crown Shall I 
descend and will you give me leave 

[III.] Must I budge Must I observe you Must I stand and 
crouch under your testy humor Did he go or did he send 



THE EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

I. The exclamation-point, or note of exclamation, is used 
after vehement expressions of emotion; as, "O Banquo! 
Banquo! our royal master's murdered!" 

II. In impassioned language this point is used after the 
nominative independent instead of the points that would be 
used in unimpassioned language; as, "All hail Macbeth! 
Hail to thee, thane of Cawdor!" "O thou vile king! give 
me my father!" 



With what kind of letter is this point 
followed ? 

What punctuation in a series of con- 
nected questions? 



What is the office of the exclamation- 
point? 

Explain the punctuation of "All hail, 
Macbeth!" 



256 PUNCTUATION. 

Remark.— The interrogation-point is sometimes improperly used after excla- 
mations that have the form of questions; as, "O! who would inhabit this bh-uk. 
world alone?" This being intended, not for inquiry, but for a forcible expression 
of opinion, the exclamation-point should be used. 

III. The exclamation-point is generally used after interjec- 
tions; as, "Fie! how dare you do it!" "O! save him!" 

But when interjections are used as jwo-proposUkms (see page 
142, Remark 4), or when they are placed before nouns in the 
nominative case independent or objective independent (see 
Remark; p. 239), the exclamation-point is placed at the end 
of the expression; as, "Fie upon thee, slanderer!" "O that 
my heart would burst!" "O most lame and impotent conclu- 
sion!" "Ah me unhappy!" " O me, that awful dream!" 

IV. This point should be placed only where the full force 
of the exclamation is brought out; as, "Charge, Chester, 
charge!" This is better than "Charge! Chester, charge!" 
because the exclamation is partially suspended till the second 
"charge." But in Othello's bitter exclamation against his 
own folly, "O fool! fool! fool!" the point is properly placed 
after each "fool." 

EXERCISES. 

Punctuate the following: 

[ I.] Hail to the chief who in triumph advances Set a village on 
fire the wicked wretches Good heavens the child is swallowing a pin 

[ II.] Gold and gold and nothing but gold God save thee, ancient 
mariner The heavens thee guard and keep, most royal imp of fame 

[Remark.] How can you be so careless Was this a face to be 
exposed against the warring winds 

[ III.] Bah this is the third umbrella gone since Christmas O let 
me not be mad O what a noble mind is here o'erthrown 

[ IV.] On Stanley on Reputation reputation reputation O I have 
lost my reputation Lights lights lights Speed Malise speed 

The dash is used— THE DASH ' 

I. When a sentence breaks off abruptly; as, "'Ah! Bur- 
leigh, thou little knowest' — here her tears fell over her che< 

What punctuation with intorirrtions 
Where should this point be placed ? 



THE DASH. 257 

in despite of her;" " 'Still my advice is so far worth taking 
that — in short, that I have never taken it myself and am 
the — ' here Mr. Micawber, who had been beaming and smiling 
all over his head and face, checked himself and frowned — ' the 
miserable wretch you behold. 5 " 

II. When there is a change in the construction of the sen- 
tence; as, "The pages of history — how is it that they are so 
dark and sad?" 

III. Before and after a parenthesis; as, "Those who hated 
him most heartily — and no man was hated more heartily — 
admitted that his natural parts were excellent." 

Remark. — A parenthesis is some incidental and explanatory remark inserted 
in a sentence which is complete without it; as, "and no man was hated more 
heartily," in the passage quoted above. 

IV. At a significant pause; as,— 

" Before my face my handkerchief I spread, 
To hide the flood of tears I did — not shed." 

V. Where a passage that has been interrupted is resumed 
with a repetition of some word or words previously used; as, 
"'I wish,' said my uncle Toby, with a deep sigh — 'I wish, 
Trim, I were asleep.' " 

VI. Before a word emphatically repeated; as, "Newton 
was a Christian — Newton, whose mind burst from the fetters 
cast by nature on our finite conceptions." 

Remark.— Some would place a semicolon as well as a dash before the repeated 
Newton, but there is no necessity for the semicolon, and the page is neater without it. 

VII. When the speeches of different speakers are placed in 
the same paragraph they are sometimes separated by the dash. 
"What does this mean, Mr. Etty!" — "Suppose you look." — 
"But I have looked." — "Suppose you look again." 

Remark. — Some do not use the dash in such cases, regarding the marks of 
quotation as a sufficient separation. "What does this mean, Mr. Etty?" "Sup- 
pose you look." "But I have looked." "Suppose you look again." 

VIII. When a sentence is continued on the next line, as in 
the first line under "The Dash." 

What is the second case? The third? I What is the sixth case? The seventh? 
The fourth? The fifth? | The eighth? 

22 



258 PUNCTUATION. 

IX. To denote hesitation or faltering; as, "He stands up 
to you like — like a — why, I don't know what he doesn't 
stand up to you like." 

X. To denote an expressive pause; as, "Then the pulse 
fluttered — stopped — went on — throbbed — stopped again — 
moved — stopped — Shall I go on? — No." 

EXERCISES. 

Punctuate the following: 

[I.] Was there ever but I scorn to boast. If you will give me 
your attention, I will show you but stop, I do not know that you 
wish to see. 

[ II.] Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth the words of such men do 
not stale upon us. But my feelings words are too weak to express them. 

[III.] Having performed this ceremony, he was permitted and the 
permission was blamed by the Savoyards to limp home without a rag 
upon him. 

[IV.] The good woman was allowed by every person, except her 
husband, to be a sweet-tempered lady when not in liquor. 

[V.] "We have framed" such was in substance his reasoning "we 
have framed a law which has in it nothing exclusive." 

[ VI.] Can Parliament be so dead to its dignity and duty as to give 
its sanction to measures thus obtruded and forced upon them ? measures, 
my lords, which have reduced this late nourishing kingdom to scorn 
and contempt. 

[IX.] I did not wish to but a it was necessary a to to secure his a 
support. 

[X.] The stream fell over the precipice paused fell paused again 
then darted down the valley. 

THE CURVES, OR MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 
The curves, or marks of parenthesis, are used to inclose 
parentheses; as, "I stood to hear (I love it well) the rain's 
continuous sound." 

Remarks.— 1. The dash is at present used more frequently than the curves, 
heing thought to have a neater appearance. 

2. A parenthesis does not interfere with the punctuation of the passage in 
which it occurs; as, "The night (it was the middle of summer) was fair and 

] What is said of the punctuation <>f the 
1 passage in which a parenthesis occurs ? 



THE HYPHEN. 259 

calm." Whatever point is demanded by the passage is placed after the last curve. 
"If he sometimes stooped to be a villain, it was merely to amuse himself and to 
astonish other people." If a parenthesis is inserted after villain, the comma is 
placed after the parenthesis, and not at villain; as, "If he sometimes stooped to 
be a villain (for no milder word will come up to the truth), it was merely," etc. 

3. The parts of the parenthesis itself are punctuated according to the general 
rules; as, "Our little room (is it not a little one?) is well filled ;" "Thou too (O 
heavens!) mayst become a political power." 

EXERCISES. 

Place the curves where required: 
He seemed to be very fond of my mother I am afraid I liked him 
none the better for that, and she was very fond of him. The rocks 
hard-hearted varlets ! melted not into tears at bis lamentation. While 
they wish to please and why should they not wish it? they disdain dis- 
honorable means. Left now to himself and malice could not wish him 
a worse adviser, be resolved on a desperate project. 

THE HYPHEN. 

The hyphen is used to join the parts of compound words ; 
as, "laughter-loving, printing-office." It is also used after 
one or more syllables to show that the rest of the word is in 
the next line. 

When two words are so closely joined in pronunciation 
that they have but one primary accent they are united in 
one compound word; as, "walking-stick, singing-school, ink- 
stand, sunbeam." 

Remarks.— 1. " The crow is a black bird, but not a blackbird." In speaking 
the separate words black and bird we accent both ; but in speaking blackbird we 
accent the first syllable only. "A walking stick " would mean a stick that walks ; 
but "a walking-stick" is a stick to walk with. "A reading lesson " would mean 
a lesson that reads; but "a reading - lesson " is a lesson for reading. "Boy 
hunters "=hunters who are boys; but " boy-hunters "=persons who hunt boys. 
"A hot house "=a house which is hot ; but " a hot-house "=a house for protecting 
plants from cold. "A singing school "==a school that is singing; but "a singing- 
school "=a school for teaching singing. " Exclamation-point "=a point to mark 
exclamation. 

2. When words are first compounded the component parts are united by the 
hyphen ; but when the compound words come into very common use the hyphen, 
unless the component parts are very long, is generally omitted ; as, " steam-boat, 
steamboat." 

No definite rule with respect to the omission of the hyphen can be given. 
The dictionaries are inconsistent ; for we find in them such inconsistent forms as 

How is the parenthesis punctuated? I When words are first compounded how 
What is the office of the hyphen ? | are the component parts united ? 



260 PUNCTUATION. 

hot-house and greenhouse. Till recently bluebird was written blue-bird, though at the 
same time blackbird was written as a solid word. 

3. Sometimes a part belonging to each of two connected compound words is 
expressed only once, in which case the hyphen is generally omitted ; as, " dwelling 
and sleeping rooms "=dwelling-rooms and sleeping-rooms. In German books a 
hyphen is placed Avhere the part is omitted ; as, " Gehirn- oder Nervenkrankheit" 
(brain- or nerve-disease). This is sometimes done in English books ; as, ° For 
poaching at once upon the game- and the sin-preserves of his betters."— R. G. 
White. "Who was what is called a rigger, and mast-, oar-, and block-maker."— 
Forster's Life of Dickens. This deserves to be followed ; as, " dwelling- and sleeping- 
rooms, the exclamation- and the interrogation-point." 

4. Compound numerals from twenty to hundred have their parts united by the 
hyphen; as, "twenty-one, twenty-first." 

5. The adverbs ill, well, and sometimes others, are joined to participles coming 
before the modified noun, but are not joined when the participle comes after the 
noun ; as, " With an ill-trained and ill-appointed army."— Macaulay. " The horses 
had been ill fed and ill tended."— Id. "Two hundred Irish foot, ill armed, ill 
clothed, and ill disciplined."— Id. 

6. When a compound word the parts of which are united by the hyphen is 
made to form part of another oumpound word the first hyphen is omitted : Red- 
headed united with woodpecker forms redheaded- woodpecker, not red-headed-woodpecker. 
Some omit the second hyphen instead of the first; as, " red-headed woodpecker." 

7. When two words usually separated are used in the sense of an adjective 
they are united by the hyphen; as, "Main Street," "Main-street car;" "A New- 
Albany wagon." "A New Albany wagon" might be understood to mean an 
Albany wagon which is new. 

EXERCISES. 

Insert hyphens in the proper places: 
Let us go to the printing office. The dining room is empty. They 
have a diving bell. She is at the dancing school. The reading lessons 
are preceded by definitions. This is a difficult spelling lesson. Is this 
an interrogation point? It is a well preserved specimen. The coat 
was made of dark blue cloth. 

THE QUOTATION-POINTS, OR MARKS OF QUOTATION. 

The quotation-points, or marks of quotation, inclose some- 
thing quoted. 

Examples. — Socrates said, "I believe that the soul is immortal." 
"I believe," said Socrates, "that the soul is immortal." 

If the substance only is given, not the words, the quotation- 
points are not used. 

Examples. — Socrates said he believed that the soul is immortal. 
He answered that he would not come. 



What is the office of the quotation- I Are the points used when the substance 
points? I only is given? 



OTHER MARKS. 



261 



A quotation included within a quotation is marked with 
one point at the beginning and one at the end, instead of two. 

Example. — " I have had what women call ' a real good cry.' " The 
single point after cry marks the end of the included quotation, and the 
double point marks the end of the whole quotation. 

When a question or an exclamation is quoted the marks 
of quotation should follow the marks of interrogation or of 
exclamation. 

Examples. — He said, "What are you doing here?" He exclaimed, 
" O the perfidy of man !" 

But if the mark of interrogation or of exclamation does 
not belong to the part quoted, but to the whole passage, it is 
placed after the marks of quotation. 

Examples. — Will you say " I am holier than thou " ? And this is 
your "happy home"! 

OTHER MASKS. 

Brackets generally inclose some explanation or something 
intended to prevent mistake; as, "John told James that he 
[James] was to get a new book." 

The Apostrophe is used where a letter is omitted; as, 
e'en for even, 'tis for it is. It is used as a sign of the pos- 
sessive case, marking the omission of the e which formerly 
belonged to this case; as, lamb's for lambes. 

The Dleresis placed over the latter of two vowels shows 
that they do not form a diphthong; as, aerial. The diaeresis 
here shows that this word is not to be pronounced erial. 

The Ellipsis is generally used where some letters are 
omitted from a name; as, B n, or B***n, for Byron. 

The Section [§] marks the small divisions of a book 
or chapter. 

The Paragraph [H], which is not much used except in 
the English Bible, denotes the beginning of a new subject. 



What of a quotation within a quotation? 
Where are the quotation-points placed 

when a question or exclamation is 

quoted? 



What is the office of the brackets? Of 
the apostrophe ? Of the diaeresis? Of 
the ellipsis ? Of the section ? Of the 
paragraph ? 



262 PUNCTUATION. 

The Index, or Hand [fi^], is used to point out some- 
thing to which particular attention is called. 

The Brace [j] is used to connect several terms with one 

John Williams, ) T n 1 j 

common term: as, Jium* Anderson,*. Managers, it was iormerly used to 

7 7 Robert Thomson,) ^ ^ 

connect the three lines of verse which form a triplet. 

The Caret, used in writing only, shows where to insert 

my 

words or letters that have been omitted; "This is A book." 
The Macron, or the Long, placed over a vowel shows that 

the vowel has its long sound; as, Palestine. The mark here 

shows that i has the sound that it has in fine. 

The Breve, or the Short, placed over a vowel shows that 

the vowel has its short sound; as, fertile. The mark here 

shows that i has the sound that it has in fin. 

The Asterisk [*], the Obelisk [f], the Double Dagger 

[I], and the Parallels [||] refer to marginal notes. The 

letters of the alphabet and the numerical figures are often 

used for the same purpose. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 
The following words should begin with capital letters: 

1. The first word of every distinct sentence. 

Remark.— In a formal enumeration each particular begins with a capital ; as, 
" This takes place 1. When an address is made ; 2. In mere exclamations." 

In an enumeration of this kind the period is sometimes used after each item, 
the connection being regarded as sufficiently indicated by the figures. 

2. Proper names and titles; as, "Socrates, George Washington, 
Judge Story, Lord Palmerston, Sir Walter Scott, the Duke of Wel- 
lington, Charles the Bold, Walnut Street, Ohio, the Hon. John Smith, 
Great Salt Lake, Lake Erie, Jersey City, Cape Fear, Rhode Island, 
Hudson's Bay, Trinity College, the Mountains of the Moon." 

Remarks.— 1. Names of objects personified are of course regarded as proper 
names; as, "And Truth severe by fairy Fiction dressed." 

2. The French de (of) and the German von (of) are written in small letters 
when preceded by some part of the name or by a title: when not so preceded 
they begin with capitals ; as, " Captain de Caxton ; the old De Caxtons. "—Bulwer. 
"Wolfgang von Dilke; even Von Raunur."— Hood. 

What is the office of the index? Of the I What is the first class of words that 
brace? Of the caret? Of the macron? should begin with a capital letter? 
Of the breve? Of the asterisk, etc? | The second? 



CAPITAL LETTEES. 263 

3. The names of months and days begin with capitals, but not the names of the 
seasons; as, "January, May, Monday, Christmas, Good Friday, spring, summer." 

3. All the chief words in the titles of books; as, "Clarendon's 
History of the Great Kebellion." 

4. Names of the Deity; as, "God, Jehovah, Most High, Divine 
Providence, Almighty, Supreme Being, Great Spirit." 

Remark.— A pronoun referring to the Deity should begin with a capital only 
when it is equivalent to a name of the Deity ; as, " Our trust is in Him who guides 
the storm." 

But some in modern times begin with capitals all pronouns referring to the 
Deity, even relative pronouns; as, "Give ear, O Shepherd of Israel, Thou That 
leadest Joseph like a flock." This is a kind of typographical cant which does not 
show itself in the English Bible, the Book of Common Prayer, the Westminster 
Confession of Faith, or the Roman Catholic prayer-books. 

5. Words derived from proper names; as, Eoman, English, Ameri- 
can, Americanism. But when the derived word ceases to point to its 
origin it no longer begins with a capital. Thus, stentorian is derived 
from Stentor, the loud-voiced herald in Homer ; hut as we do not now 
think of Stentor when we use this word we do not begin it with a 
capital. The word italic denoting a kind of type should, according to 
this principle, begin with a small letter. 

6. Every line of poetry. 

7. The first word of a direct quotation when the quotation would 
form a complete sentence by itself; as, "Chaucer beautifully says, 'TJp 
rose the sonne, and up rose Emelie.' " 

Remark.— The word that introducing a statement of something resolved or 
enacted should begin with a capital; as, "Resolved, That the thanks of this 
meeting," etc.; "Be it enacted, That after this date," etc. 

8. The letters 7 and forming the pronoun I and the interjection 
O are always capital letters. 

EXERCISES. 
Write the following with capitals in their proper places : 
thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not steal, honesty is the best policy, 
socrates, plato. aristotle, and pythagoras were grecian philosophers, the 
soldiers of general Washington loved him. 

he has read a great many german and french works, solomon says, 
go to the ant, thou sluggard, remember the ancient maxim, know thy- 
self, he has read milton's paradise lost and paradise regained, if i can 
find the work, i will send it to you. hear, o man. o excellent scipio! 
here rests his head upon the lap of earth 
a youth to fortune and to fame unknown. 

What is the third class? The fourth? The fifth, etc? What is said of I and Of 



264 



PROSODY. 



PROSODY. 



Prosody treats of the laws of versification, or verse- 
making. 

A verse is a certain number of accented and unaccented syllables 
arranged in order and forming a line of poetry. 

Remark.— The word verse is from the Latin versus, a turning; and a verse 
is so called because at the end of one line there is a turning to the beginning 
of another line. The word verse is sometimes applied to a collection of verses 
properly called a stanza. 

A foot is a portion of a verse, consisting of two or more syllables 
combined according to accent. 

Scanning is the dividing of a verse into the feet of which it is 
composed. 

The macron [-] over a syllable shows that it is accented; the 
breve [ w ] shows that the syllable is unaccented. 

Remark. — In the poetry of some languages syllables are long or short instead 
of accented and unaccented, a long syllable occupying twice the time of a short 

syllable. 

KINDS OF FEET. 

The principal feet are the iambus, the trochee, the anapest, 
and the dactyl. 

The iambus and the trochee consist each of two syllables, and the 
anapest and the dactyl each of three syllables. 

The iambus has the second syllable accented and the first unac- 
cented; as, devote, create. 

The trochee has the first syllable accented and the second unac- 
cented; as, older, running. 

The anapest has the last syllable accented and the two first 
unaccented; as, understand, misbehave. 

The dactyl has the first syllable accented and the two last 
unaccented; as, labSrer, positive. 



Of what does prosody treat? 
What is a verse ? Afoot? Scanning? 
What are the principal feet? 
Of how many feet do the iambus and 
the trochee consist? 



Of how many feet do the anapest and 
the dactyl consist? 

Which syllable is accented in the iam- 
bus? In the trochee? In the anapest? 
In the dactyl? 



KINDS OF FEET. 265 

Remark. — Part of a word may be in one foot and part in another or others ; as, 
"Sweet ru | ral scene." 
Here the accented syllable ru of rural is joined with the unaccented sweet to form 
an iambus, and the unaccented ral of the same word is joined with the accented 
scene to form another iambus. Two or more monosyllables may be taken together 
in such a way that one of them, from its relative importance or its position in the 
verse, receives the accent, just as if the monosyllables were syllables of one word ; 
851 "All crimes | shall cease, | and an | cient fraud | shall fail." 

The spondee and the pyrrhic are two feet which occasionally occur. 
The spondee consists of two accented syllables; as, 

"Town, tower, "Waves gray, 
Shore, deep, Where play 
Where lower Winds gay- 
Cliffs steep ; All asleep."— From Victor Hugo. 
The pyrrhic consists of two unaccented syllables; as, 

"Brought death into the world and all our woe."— Milton. 
A word of one syllable is sometimes placed so as to be dwelt on 
and made equivalent to a foot; as, 

"Break, break, break 
On thy cold gray stones, O sea!"— Tennyson. 
Remark.— A word used in this way is sometimes called a csesura,* 

EXERCISES. 

What foot does each of the following words form? 
Console, compose, confine, derange, divide, unite, erect, distinct, 
mother, other, singer, going, feeling, ever, never, wither, hydrant, 
distant, overtake, overcome, absentee, insincere, introduce, entertain, 
recommend, incomplete, supervise, prosody, singular, masculine, fuel, 
syllable, happiness, bigotry, artifice, sacred, efface, dissent, gather, 
elegant, disconnect, complete, simple, deserve, finish, ecstacy, divine, 
condescend, morose, finger, subtrahend, remote, gather, infinite, glorify, 
feminine, glory, manager, epithet, serious, furious, decide, otter, reduce, 
exist, wisdom, folly, expect, ignorant, retrace, apprehend, fester, robust, 
indistinct, wishing, washing, weather, whither. 

*Csesura, which literally means cutting off, is properly applied to the separation 
of the parts of a foot by the sense ; as, 

"A steed comes at morning : nd rider is there." — CampbeU. 

Here the syllables in italics make one foot ; but the sense makes a pause or sepa- 
ration between ing and the rest of the foot. 



Give an example in which part of a word 
is in one foot and part in another. 

Give an example in which two monosyl- 
lables are taken together to form a foot. 

23 



Of what does the spondee consist? The 

pyrrhic? 
Give an example in which a word is 

made equivalent to a foot. 



266 



PEOSODY. 



KHYME. 

Poetry is either with or without rhyme. 

Rhyme is a correspondence of sound between the endings of two 
or more verses; as, 

"Favors to none, to all she smiles extends; 
Oft she rejects, but never once offends."— Pope. 
The term rhyme is also applied to a word that rhymes with another. 

A syllable that rhymes with another must be at no great distance 
from it, so that the sound of the first syllable may remain in the 
memory till that of the second is heard. 

In perfect rhymes the vowel-sound is the same, and what follows 
the vowel-sound is the same. Thus, -tends and -fends have the same 
vowel-sound, e short, and the same sounds following e, nds. What 
precedes the vowel-sounds must be different; as, -tends and -fends. 
Extends and intends would not furnish proper rhymes, both words 
ending in the same accented syllable tends. 

Sometimes an unaccented syllable is added after the accented syl- 
lable ; as, dying, flying. This kind of rhyme is called double rhyme. 
When two unaccented syllables are added the rhyme is called triple 
rhyme; as, finical, cynical. 

Sometimes a syllable in the middle portion of a verse rhymes with 
one at the end; as, "The splendor fa Us on castle walls." This is called 
middle rhyme. 

Remark.— Poets often use what are called "allowable rhymes," in which the 
vowel-sounds are somewhat different; as, 

" Hither the heroes and the nymphs resort 
To taste a while the pleasures of a court.' 1 '— Pope. 
What follows the vowel-sounds must be the same in "allowable" as well as in 
perfect rhyme. 

KINDS OF VERSE. 
Iambic verse is composed chiefly of iambuses ; trochaic verse 
of trochees; anapestic verse of anapests; and dactylic verse of 
dactyls. 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

1. To meet. 

2. Through woods, | thrSugh lakes. 

3. Beloved | from pole | to pole. 

4. The ice | was here, | the ice | was there. 



What is rhyme ? 

In perfect rhymes what must be the 

same? 
What is double rbyme ? Triple rhyme ? 



What is middle rhyme? 
Of what is iambic verse composed? Tro- 
chaic? Anapestie? Dactylic? 
Give some examples of iambic verse. 



KINDS OF VERSE. 267 

5. The lo | tus blooms | below j the bar | ren peak. 

6. Thy realm | for ev | er lasts, | thy own | MessI | ah reigns. 

7. A thou | sand knights | are press j ing close | behind | the snow|-white crest. 

Each of these kinds of iambic verse may take an additional unac- 
cented syllable; as, 

1. Disdain | ing. 

2. Beside | a fount | ain. 

3. The al | batross | did fol | low. 

4. But hail, | thou god | dess sage | and ho | ly. 

5. The meet | ing points | the sa | cred hair | dissev | er. 

6. Whose front j can brave j the storm | but will | not rear | the flow | er. 

7. They come! j the mer|ry sum|mer months | of beaujty, song, j and flow|ers 
Iambic verse of five feet is called heroic verse, because it is the 

verse employed in poems relating the exploits of heroes. 

An iambic verse of six feet is called an alexandrine* a name 
derived from an old French poem on the exploits of Alexander. 

Remark.— Most of the works of Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, 
Cowper, Thomson, Young, and Wordsworth are in heroic verse. 

An elegiac stanza — so called because it is used in elegies, or plaintive 
poems — consists of four heroic verses, the first verse rhyming with the 
third and the second with the fourth; as, 

"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me." 
Remark.— This is the stanza of Gray's " Elegy in a Country Church-yard." 
The Spenserian stanza consists of eight heroic verses followed by 
an alexandrine. The first verse rhymes with the third; the second 
with the fourth, fifth, and seventh; the sixth with the eighth and 
ninth; as, <<And g^^ ava rice hy him did ride 
Upon a camel laden all with gold; 
Two iron coffers hung on either side, 
With precious metal full as they might hold; 
And in his lap a heap of coin he told; 
For of his wicked pelf a god he made, 

And unto hell himself for money sold; 
Accursed usury was all his trade; 
And right and wrong alike in equal balance weighed." 
Remark.— This is the stanza of Spenser's " Faerie Queen," Thomson's "Castle 
of Indolence," Beattie's " Minstrel," and Byron's " Childe Harold." 

*This word is generally, but unnecessarily, begun with a capital. 

Examples with an additional syllable. I What is an elegiac stanza? The Spen- 
What is heroic verse ? An alexandrine ? | serian stanza ? 



268 PROSODY. 

A sonnet consists of fourteen heroic verses, which are generally 
arranged in four stanzas, the two first containing four verses each, the 
two last containing three verses each; as in the following sonnet of 
Milton: "Cyriack, this three years' day these eyes, though clear 
To outward view of blemish or of spot, 
Bereft of light, their seeing have forgot; 
Nor to their idle orbs doth sight appear 
Of sun or moon or star, throughout the year, 
Or man or woman. Yet I argue not 
Against Heaven's hand or will, nor bate a jot 
Of heart or hope ; but still bear up and steer 
Right onward. What supports me, dost thou ask? 

The conscience, friend, to have lost them overplied 
In liberty's defense, my noble task, 

Of which all Europe rings from side to side. 
This thought might lead me through the world's vain mask 
Content though blind, had I no better guide." 
Remark.— This is the way in which Milton's sonnets are printed. Words- 
worth's sonnets are printed without any marking of the divisions. Shakespeare's 
sonnets are arranged in three elegiac stanzas followed by a couplet, or two lines 
rhyming with each other. 

Iambic verse of seven feet is usually divided into two lines, the first 
containing four feet, the second three; as, 

"When all thy mercies, O my God, 
My rising soul surveys." 

This is what is called common meter. Long meter has four iambuses in 
each line ; as, " o ! come, loud anthems let us sing, 

Loud thanks to our Almighty King." 
Short meter has three iambuses in the first, second, and fourth lines 
and four in the third; as, 

"May Jacob's God defend 
And hear us in distress, 
Our succor from his temple send, 
Our cause from Sion bless!" 

, c . . g TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1. otraying. 

2. Clouds are | flying. 

3. Go where | glory | waits thee. 

4. Read this | song of | Hia | wathfi. 

5. Spake full | well in | language | quaint find | 6ld8n. 

6. Lay a | shepherd | swain and | viewed the | rolling | blllSw. 

7. Woo the j fair one | when a | round her | early | birds fire | singing. 

8. Not thejleast 6[beisancejmade he,|not an|instantjstOpped 6r|stayed h§. 

What is a sonnet? I What is short metre? 

What is common metre? Long metre? | Give some examples of trochaic verse. 



KINDS OF VEESE. 



269 



Trochaic verse may take an additional accented syllable; as, 

1. Klpples | flow. 

2. Hark the | rising | swell. 

3. Thee the | voice, the | dance o | hey. 

4. Sat a J farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair. 

5. Hail to j thee, blithe j spirit! | bird thou | never | wert. 

6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting | over j "Water | loo. 

7. Dreary | gleams a | bout the | moorland, | flying | over | Locksley | Hall. 
Verses like the three last may be divided each into two; as, 

"Hail to thee, blithe spirit! 
Bird thou never wert." 
"Night and morning were at meeting 
Over Waterloo." 
Remarks.— 1. Trochaic verse with the additional accented syllable is the same 
as iambic verse without the initial unaccented syllable. 

2. Longfellow's " Hiawatha" is in trochaic verse of four feet. 

1. No reply. ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

2. For my love | he is late. 

3. She will say | 't was a bar | barous deed. 

4. 'Twas the night | before Christ | mas, and all | through the house. 

Remark.— Greater stress on the first syllable will change anapestic verse of 
one foot to a trochee with an additional accented syllable. 

1. Merrily. DACTYLIC VERSE. 

2. Kashly im | portunate. 

3. March to the | battle field | fearlessly. 

4. Bachelor's j Hall, what a | queer-looking | place it is! 

Dactylic verse scarcely ever ends with the dactyl. Sometimes an 
accented syllable is added, sometimes a trochee; as, 

Brightest and | best 6f the | sons of the | morning, 
Dawn 6n Our | darkness and | lend Us thine | aid. 

The epic or heroic verse of the Greeks and Komans is called dactylic 
hexameter. It consists of six feet, of which the fifth is a dactyl, the 
sixth a spondee, and each of the others may be either a dactyl or a 
spondee. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and Virgil's JEneid are in this 
verse. Longfellow has imitated this verse in his Evangeline; but, as 



Give some examples of trochaic verse 
with an additional syllable. 

Give some examples of anapestic verse ? 
Of dactylic verse ? 



How does dactylic verse usually end ? 
What is the epic or heroic verse of the 

Greeks and Romans called ? 
Of what does it consist? 



270 



PROSODY. 



the English language does not readily furnish spondees, he has for the 
most part been obliged to take trochees instead of them. 
All were sub | dued and | low as the | murmurs of | love, and the | great sun 
Looked with the | eye of | love through the | golden | vapors a | round him. 
Great sun makes a spondee; but -dued and, eye of, golden, and -round 
him are trochees. 

Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iambic verse, for 
instance, admits of any of the other feet; as, 

Through the | wide rent | In Time's | eter | nal veil. 
Murmuring, | and with | him fled | the shades | Of night 
Before | all tern | pies the up | right heart | and pure. 
X mind | not to | be changed | by place | Or time. 

Anapestic verse often begins with an iambus; as, 

He thought | as a sage | though he felt | as a man.— Beattie. 
In modern poetry anapests are frequently mingled with iambuses, 
and dactyls with trochees; as, 

LO ! while | we are gaz | Ing, In swift | 6r haste 

Stream down | the snows | till the air | Is white.— Bryant. 

Beautiful | Evelyn | Hope Is | dead ! 

Sit and | watch b^ her | side an | hour.— R. Browning. 

POETICAL PAUSES. 

The final pause is a pause naturally made at the end of a verse, 
whether a pause is demanded by the sense or not; as, 
" His spear, to equal which the tallest pine 
Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast 
Of some great admiral were but a wand."— Milton. 
The csesural pause is a pause in the verse, made naturally in reading 
verse correctly. 

In the longer verses it is made where the verse seems to be divided 
into two nearly equal verses; as, 

" But they smile, they find a music | centred in a doleful song 
Steaming up a lamentation || and an ancient tale of wrong."— Tennyson, 
In the shorter verses there is no pause, unless one is demanded by 
the sense; as, "Faint with famine, Hiawatha 

Started from his bed of branches."— Longfellow. 
In the first verse there is a pause, which is demanded by the sense; 
in the second there is no pause. 



What is said concerning the regularity 

of poems? 
With what does anapestic verse often 

begin ? 
What feet are frequently mingled in 

modern poetry? 



What is the final pause? The ciesural 

pause? 
Where is the caesural pause in the longer 

Where is the caisural pause in the short- 
er verses? 



EXERCISES. 271 

In almost every heroic verse there is a pause, hut no pause inde- 
pendent of the sense; as, 

"The steer and lion || at one crib shall meet, 
And harmless serpents || lick the pilgrim's feet." — Pope. 
Each of these verses has in the middle a pause, hut no other pause 
than such as would be proper in prose between the subject and the 
predicate. 

The pause may be made to fall near the beginning or the end of the 
verse. By having a pause placed at falls in the following passage the 
verse is made to imitate the motion of the falling leaf, falls expressing 
the loosening from the branch, the rest of the verse expressing the 
gentle floating off to the ground: 

"And turning yellow, 
Falls, and floats adown the air."— Tennyson. 

EXERCISES FOR SCANNING AND PARSING. 

The beginner in scanriing is advised first to read the verse slowly, 
so that he may see which syllables are accented. Then he may place a 
mark over each of the accented syllables. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

He will see that the accented syllables are cur, tolls, knell, part, and day. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part | ing day. 

He will see that the feet, consisting each of an unaccented followed by 

an accented syllable, are iambuses. 

I am monarch of all I survey. 
The accented syllables are mon, all, and vey. 

I am monarch of all I survey. 

I am mon | arch of all 1 1 survey. 
The feet, consisting each of three syllables, the two first unaccented 
and the last accented, are anapests. 

Hark! his hands the lyre explore. 
The accented syllables are hark, hands, lyre, and plore. 

Hark! his hands the lyre explore. 

Hark! his | hands the | lyre ex | plore. 
The feet, consisting each of two syllables, the first accented and the 
second unaccented, are trochees ; plore is an additional accented syllable. 

Lochiel,* Lochiel, beware of the day. 

Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day. 

Lochi | el, Lochi | el, beware | of the day. 
This is anapestic verse; the first foot is an iambus. 

* Pronounced lock-e-el. 



272 PROSODY. 

Wearily flaggeth my soul in the desert 
Accented syllables, wear, flag, soul, and dcs. 

Wearily flaggeth my soul in the desert. 

Wearily | flaggeth my | soul in the | desert. 
Dactylic verse; the last foot is a trochee. 

Deep in the wave is a coral grove. 

Deep in the wave is a coral grove. 

Deep in the | wave is a | coral | grove. 
The two first feet are dactyls; the third is a trochee; and grove is an 
additional accented syllable. In this poem there are four accented 
syllables in each verse; but the feet are iambuses, trochees, anapests, 
or dactyls. 



Hark! hist! 


Of space 


Around 


All trace 


I list ! 


Efface 


The bounds 


Of sound. 



On thy fair bosom, silver lake, 
The wild swan spreads his snowy sail, 

And round his breast the ripples break, 
As down he bears before the gale. 

On thy fair bosom, waveless stream, 

The dipping paddle echoes far, 
And flashes in the moonlight gleam, 

And bright 1 reflects the polar star.— Percival. 

The quiet August noon has come, 
A slumberous silence fills the sky, 

The fields are still, the woods are dumb, 
In glassy sleep the waters he.— Bryant. 

Here to the houseless child of want 

My door is open still ; 
And though my portion is but scant, 

I give it with good wilL 

Then, pilgrim, turn; thy cares forego; 

All earth-born cares are wrong: 
Man wants but little here below, 

Nor wants that little long.— Goldsmith. 

Ah ! my heart is weary waiting- 
Waiting for the May — 

Waiting for the pleasant rambles, 

Where the fragrant hawthorn brambles, 

With the woodbine alternating, 
Scent the dewy way. 

Ah! my heart is weary waiting- 
Waiting for the May— McCarthy. 

I Rule XII, Rem. 5. 



EXERCISES. 273 

Eternal blessings crown 1 my earliest friend, 
And round his dwelling guardian saints attend ! i 
Blest be that spot where cheerful guests retire 
To pause from toil and trim their evening fire! 
Blest that abode where want and pain repair, 
And every stranger finds a ready chair ! 
Blest be those feasts with simple plenty crowned, 
Where all the ruddy family around 2 
Laugh at the jests or pranks that never fail, 
Or sigh with pity at some mournful tale, 
Or press the bashful stranger to his food, 
And learn the luxury of doing good !— Goldsmith. 

The dews of summer night did fall; 

The moon, sweet regent of the sky, 
Silvered the walls of Cumnor Hall 

And many an oak that grew thereby.— Mickle. 

When around thee dying, 
Autumn leaves are lying, 

O ! then remember me. 
And at night, when gazing 
On the gay hearth blazing, 

O! still remember me. 
Then should music, stealing 
All the soul of feeling, 
To thy heart appealing, 

Draw one tear from thee, 
Then let memory bring thee 
Strains I used to sing thee — 

O! then remember me.— Moore. 

The soul, secured in her existence, smiles 

At the drawn dagger and defies its point. 

The stars shall fade away, the sun himself 

Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years; 

But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth, 

Unhurt amidst the war of elements, 

The wreck of matter, and the crush of worlds.— Addison. 

The sea! the sea! the open sea! 

The blue, the fresh, the ever free! 

Without a mark, without a bound, 

It runs the earth's wide regions round ; 3 

It plays with the clouds; it mocks the skies; 

Or like a cradled creature* lies. — Procter. 

Deep in the wave is a coral grove 

Where the purple mullet and gold-fish rove; 

Where the sea-flower spreads its leaves of blue 

That never are wet with the falling dew, 

But in bright and changeful beauty shine 

Far down in the green and glassy brine.— Percival. 

1 See p. 83. 2 See p. 133, first paragraph. 

» See p. 121, third paragraph. *See p. 167, fourth paragraph. 



274 PROSODY. 

'T is the last rose of summer 

Left blooming alone ; 
All her lovely companions 

Are faded and gone; 
No flower of her kindred, 

No rosebud is nigh, 
To reflect 1 back her blushes 

Or give sigh for sigh. 

I'll not leave thee, thou lone one, 

To pine 1 on the stem; 
Since the lovely are sleeping, 

Go sleep thou with them. 
Thus kindly I scatter 

Thy leaves o'er the bed 
Where thy mates of the garden 

Lie scentless and dead. 

So soon may I follow 

When friendships decay, 
And from Love's shining 

The gems drop away! 
When true hearts lie withered, 

And fond ones are flown, 
O! who would inhabit 

This bleak world alone ! *— Moore. 

Remark.— In this poem the lines are connected in twos, so that in the two lines 
there are four anapests. 'Tis the last | rose of sum | mer left bloom | ing alone. 

Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers 8 that lately sprang and stood 

In brighter light and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood?* 

Alas ! they all are in their graves ; the gentle race of flowers 

Are lying in their lowly beds, with the fair and good of ours. 6 

The rain is falling where they lie ; but the cold November rain 

Calls not from out 6 the gloomy earth the lovely ones again.— Bryant. 

Autumn 's sighing, Storms are trailing ; i 

Moaning, dying; Winds are wailing, 

Clouds are flying Howling, railing 

On like steeds; At each door. 

While their shadows 'Midst this trailing.s 

O'er the meadows Howling, railing, 

Walk like widows List the wailing 

Decked in weeds. Of the poor.— Read. 

Maud Muller on a summer's day 
Raked the meadow sweet with hay. 
Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth 
Of simple beauty and rustic health. 
Singing she wrought, and her merry glee 
The mock-bird echoed from his tree. — Whitticr. 

iSee p. 221, 7. 3 Adjective in predicate belonging to subject who. 

3 See p. 201, 4. * Rule II. &Rule IV, Rem. 1. 

« See p. 121. * Participle. 8Noun. 



EXERCISES. 275 

We have been friends together, 

In sunshine and in shade, 
Since 1 first beneath the chestnut-trees 

In infancy we played. 
But coldness dwells within thy heart, 

A cloud is on thy brow. 
We have been friends together— 

Shall a light word part us now?— Mrs. Norton. 

Farewell ! but whenever you welcome the hour 
That awakens the night-song of mirth in your bower, 
Then think of the friend who once welcomed it too, 
And forgot his own griefs to be 2 happy with you. 
His griefs may return— not a hope may remain 
Of the few that have brightened his pathway of pain- 
But he ne'er will forget the short vision that threw 
Its enchantment around him while 3 lingering with you.— Moore. 

In the spring a fuller crimson comes upon the robin's breast ; 

In the spring the wanton lapwing gets himself another crest ; 

In the spring a lovelier iris changes on the burnished dove ; 

In the spring a young man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love. 

[Tennyson. 
Meanwhile the Tuscan army, 

Right glorious to behold, 
Came flashing back the noonday light, 
Bank behind rank, 4 like surges bright 

Of a broad sea of gold. 
Four hundred trumpets sounded 

A peal of warlike glee 
As that great host, with measured tread 
And spears advanced and ensigns spread, 
Boiled slowly towards the bridge's head, 
Where stood the dauntless three.— Macaulay. 

The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. — Byron. 

Lochiel! Lochiel! beware of the day 

When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array! 

For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, 

And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight. — Campbell. 

Not 6 a drum was heard, not a funeral note, 

As his corse to the rampart we hurried : 
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 

O'er the grave where our hero we buried.— Wolfe. 

Let firm, well-hammered soles protect thy feet 

Through freezing snows and rains and soaking sleet.— Gay. 

» Rule VI, Bern. 4. 2 See p. 221, 7. 

s He was. * Bule VI, Bern. 10. 6 Not modifies a (one). 



276 PKOSODY. 

Through the night, through the night, 

In the saddest unrest, 
Wrapped in white, all in white, 

With her babe on her breast, 1 
Walks the mother so pale, 
Staring out on the gale 

Through the night I 
Through the night, through the night, 

Where the sea hits the wreck, 
Land 2 in sight, close in sight, 

On the surf-flooded deck 
Stands the father so brave, 
Driving on to his grave 

Through the night !— Stoddard. 

With fingers weary and worn, 
With eyelids heavy and red, 
A woman sat in unwomanly rags, 
Plying her needle and thread- 
Stitch! stitch! stitch!— a 
In poverty, hunger, and dirt; 4 
And still with a voice of dolorous pitch 
She sang the "Song of the Shirt!"— Hood. 

O! breathe not his name! let it sleep 5 in the shade 
Where cold and unhonored his relics are laid: 
Sad, silent, and dark be 6 the tears that we shed 
As the night-dew that falls on the grave o'er his head. 
But the night-dew that falls, though in silence it weeps, 
Shall brighten with verdure the grave where he sleeps; 
And the tear that we shed, though in secret it rolls, 
Shall long keep his memory green in our souls.— Moore. 

I am monarch of all I survey— 

My right there is none to dispute; 
From the center all round to the sea 

I am lord of the fowl and the brute. 
O solitude! where are the charms 

That sages have seen in thy face? 
Better dwell 7 in the midst of alarms 

Than reign 7 in this horrible place.— Cowper. 

O! dear to memory are those hours 
When every pathway led to flowers, 
When sticks of peppermint possessed 
A scepter's power to sway the breast, 
And heaven was round us while we fed 
On rich, ambrosial gingerbread.— Eliza Cook. 

A vile conceit in pompous words expressed 
Is like a clown in regal purple dressed. — Pope. 

iRule VI, Rem. 5. 'Rule III, Rem. 1. 'Rule III. 

* Adjunct to plying. 6 gee p. 84, Rem. 1. «Seep. 83. 

t See p. 223, Rem. 5. 



EXERCISES. 277 

Abou Ben Adhem— may his tribe increase !— 

Awoke one night 1 from a deep dream of peace 

And saw within the moonlight in his room, 

Making it rich 2 and like 2 a lily in bloom, 

An angel writing in a book of gold. 

Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 2 

And to the presence in the room he said, 

"What writest thou?" The vision raised his head 

And, with a look made all of sweet accord, 

Answered, " The names of those who love the Lord." 

"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," 

Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low, 

But cheerly still, and said, "I pray thee, then, 

Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." 

The angel wrote and vanished. The next night 1 

It came again, with a great wakening light, 

And showed the names whom love of God had blessed— 

And, lo ! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest.— Hunt. 

Under a spreading chestnut-tree 

The village smithy stands: 
The smith, 3 a mighty man is he, 

With large and sinewy hands; 
And the muscles of his brawny arms 

Are strong as iron bands.*— Longfellow. 

Our bugles sang truce ; for the night-cloud had lowered, 
And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky; 

And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered, 
The weary to sleep, 5 and the wounded to die. 6 — Campbell. 

'Tis pleasant through the loopholes of retreat 

To peep 6 at such a world, to see 6 the stir 

Of the great Babel and not feel 6 the crowd, 

To hear 6 the roar she sends through all her gates 

At a safe distance, where the dying sound 

Falls a soft murmur 7 on the uninjured ear.— Cowper. 

The mothers of our forest-land! 

On old Kentucky's soil 
How shared they with each dauntless band 

War's tempest and life's toil.— Gallagher. 

Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows 

And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows; 

But when loud surges lash the sounding shore 

The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar : 

When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw 

The line too labors, and the words move slow: 

Not so 7 when swift Camilla scours the plain, 

Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the main.— Pope. 

i See p. 197, Rem. 10. 2 Rule VIII, Rem. 10. 3 Rule HI. 

*[ Are strong.] 6 See p. 221, 7. 6 See p. 150. 

7 Rule II. 8 [it is.] 



278 PROSODY. 

They say that in his prime, 
Ere 1 the pruning-knife of time 

Cut him down, 
Not a better man was found 
By the crier on his round 

Through the town.— Holmes. 

And darkness and doubt are now flying away; 

No longer I roam in conjecture forlorn. 
So breaks on the traveler faint and astray 

The bright and the balmy effulgence of morn. 
See truth, love, and mercy in triumph descending, 

And nature all glowing in Eden's first bloom! 
On the cold cheek of death smiles and roses are blending, 

And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb.— Beatiic. 

Stand here by my side and turn, I pray, 

On the lake below thy gentle eyes; 
The clouds hang over it heavy and gray, 3 

And dark and silent 2 the water lies; 
And out of that frozen mist the snow 
In wavering flakes begins to flow; 

Flake after flake, 8 
They sink in the dark and silent lake.— Bryant 

Speak and tell us, our Ximena, looking northward far away, 

O'er the camp of the invader, o'er the Mexican array, 

Who is losing? Who is winning? Are they far, or come they near? 

Look abroad and tell us, sister, whither rolls the storm we hear 1*—Wh ittier. 

Wearily flaggeth my soul in the desert, 

Wearily, wearily. 
Sand, ever sand, not a gleam from the fountain ; 
Sun, ever sun, not a shade from the mountain ; 
Wave after wave 3 flows the sea of the desert, 

Drearily, drearily.— Bulwer. 

Somewhat back from the village street 
Stands the old-fashioned country-seat : 
Across its antique portico 
Tall poplar-trees their shadows throw; 
And from its station in the hall 
An ancient time-piece says to all, 
"For ever— never— 
Never— for ever." 

Thou art gone to the grave ; but we will not deplore thee ; 

Though sorrows and darkness encompass the tomb, 
The Saviour has passed though its portals before thee, 

And the lamp of his love is thy guide through the gloom.— Heber. 

1 Rule VI, Rem. 4. 

3 See p. 197, Rem. 10, last paragraph. 



EXEECISES. 279 

Hark ! his hands the lyre explore ; 

Bright-eyed Fancy, hovering o'er, 

Scatters from her golden urn 

Thoughts that breathe and words that burn.— Gray. 

The harp that once through Tara's halls 

The soul of music shed 
Now hangs as mute on Tara's walls 

As if that soul were fled. 
So sleeps the pride of former days; 

So glory's thrill is o'er, 
And hearts that once beat high for praise 

Now feel that pulse no more.— Moore. 

Morn on the waters! and purple and bright 

Bursts on the billows the flushing of light! 

O'er the glad waves, like a child of the sun, 

See, the tall vessel goes gallantly on ! 

Full to the breeze she unbosoms her sail, 

And her pennant streams onward, like hope in the gale ! 

The winds come around her in murmur and song, 

And the surges rejoice as they bear her along.— Hervey. 

Lo! in the middle of the wood 

The folded leaf is wooed from out the bud 

With 1 winds upon the branch, and there 

Grows green and broad, and takes no care, 

Sun-steeped at noon, and in the moon 

Nightly dew-fed; and turning yellow, 

Falls, and floats adown the air. 

Lo ! sweetened with the summer light, 

The full-juiced apple, waxing over-mellow, 

Drops in a silent autumn night. 

All its allotted length 2 of days 

The flower ripens in its place, 

Ripens and fades and falls, and hath no toil, 

Fast-rooted in the fruitful soil.— Tennyson. 

Were 3 half the power that fills the world with terror, 
Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts, 

Given to redeem the human mind from error, 
There were 4 no need of arsenals or forts.— Longfellow. 

To each his sufferings : all are men, 

Condemned alike to groan; 5 
The tender for another's pain, 

The unfeeling for his own. 
Yet, ah ! why should they know their fate, 
Since sorrow never comes too late, 

And happiness too swiftly flies? 
Thought would destroy their paradise. 
No more— where ignorance is bliss 

'Tis folly to be wise.— Gray. 

i Rule VI, Rem. 5. 2 See p. 197, Rem. 10. 3 See p. 77, Rem. 9. 

4 See p. 77, Rem. 11. 6 See p. 223, second paragraph. 



280 PROSODY. 

The day is ending, Through clouds like ashes 

The night is descending, The red sun flashes 

The marsh is frozen, On village windows 
The river dead. That glimmer red.— Longfellow. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear ; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen 

And waste its fragrance on the desert air.— Gray. 

Know ye the land where 1 the cypress and myrtle 
Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime, 

Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle 
Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime ? 

Know ye the land of the cedar and vine, 

Where the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine ; 

Where the light wings of zephyr, oppressed with perfume, 

Wax faint o'er the gardens of Gul in her bloom; 

Where the citron and olive are fairest of fruit, 

And the voice of the nightingale never is mute: 

Where the tints of the earth and the hues of the sky, 

In color though varied, in beauty may vie, 

And the color of ocean is deepest in dye ; 

Where the virgins are soft as the roses they twine, 

And all, save the spirit 2 of man, is divine t— Byron. 

Note.— If one verse is made to run into the next, this passage consists entirely 
of dactyls except in a few places ; as, Know ye the | land where the | cypress 
and | myrtle are | emblems of | deeds that are | done in their | clime, where the | 
rage of the | vulture, the | love of the | turtle now | melt into | sorrow, now | 
madden to | etc. 

Farewell life ! my senses swim, 

And the world is growing dim ; 

Thronging shadows cloud the light, 

Like the advent of the night- 
Colder, colder, colder still, 

Upward steals a vapor chill ; 

Strong the earthy odor grows— 

I smell the mould above the rose. 

Welcome life! the spirit strives! 

Strength returns and hope revives; 

Cloudy fears and shapes forlorn 

Fly like shadows at the morn — 

O'er the earth there comes a bloom, 

Sunny light for sullen gloom, 

Warm perfume for vapor cold— 

I smell the rose above the mould.— Hood. 

All smatterers are more brisk and pert 

Than those that understand an art; 

As little sparkles shine more bright 

Than glowing coals that give them light.— Samuel Butler. 

1 See p. 162, first paragraph. a R U i e ni, Rem. 3. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 281 



PAUSING EXERCISES. 

RULE I. 

The oak grows silently in the forest a thousand years ; 1 only in the thousandth 
year, when the woodman arrives with his axe, is there heard an echoing through 
the solitudes ; and the oak announces itself when with far-sounding crash it falls. 
How silent too was the planting of the acorn, scattered from the lap of some wan- 
dering wind l—Carlyle. 

[ Remark 1.] A wise man will make haste to forgive, because he knows the 
true value of time and will not suffer it to pass away in unnecessary pain.— 
Johnson. 

Clarendon allows his demeanor through the whole proceeding to have been 
such that even those who watched for an occasion against the defender of the 
people, were compelled to acknowledge themselves unable to find any fault in 
him. — Macaulay. 

That German intellect has been fairly appreciated among us we believe to be 
mainly owing to Carlyle's persevering efforts. 2 

Zeal for what he regarded as truth, undaunted intrepidity to maintain his own 
system, abilities both natural and acquired to defend his principles and unwea- 
ried industry in propagating them are virtues which shine so conspicuously in 
every part of his behavior that even his enemies must allow him to have pos- 
sessed them in an eminent degree. — Robertson. 

[Remark 2.] He does nothing with sourness or obstinacy, and his being 
unconfined to modes and forms makes him only the readier and abler to please 
and oblige all who know him. — Addison. 

To suffer the opinion of others to rule our choice or overpower our resolves is 
to submit tamely to the lowest and most ignominious slavery.— Johnson. 

Remains only that the court, to whom his manners and garrulity were always 
agreeable, shall make his fall soft.— Carlyle. 

But 3 for him you would have been ruined. 

[Remark 6.] Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delights some persons. 

The boy stood on the burning deck 
Whence all but he had fled.— Hemans. 

It is not that that hath incensed the duke, 

It is because no one should sway but he, 

No one but he should be about the king.— Shakespeare. 

Sing again the song you sung 
When we were together young— 
When there were but 4 you and I 
Underneath the summer sky. — Curtis. 

There is none but he whose being I do fear.— Shakespeare. 

If we do but 5 put virtue and vice in equal circumstances, the advantages of 
ease and pleasure will be found to be on the side of religion.— TUlotson. 

What stays had I but they ?— Shakespeare. 

\ gee p. 197, Rem. 10. 2 See p. 222, Rem. 1. 3 But [it had been] for him. 

4 There were [none] but you and I. 

6 If we do [nothing] but put. Put, infinitive, subject of be. 

24 



282 PARSING EXERCISES. 

Your poem hath heen printed, and we have no objection but the obscurity of 
several passages. — Swift. 

Who hath any cause to mourn but I 1—Slw.kespeare. 

If a reader examines Horace's Art of Poetry, he will find * but very few pre- 
cepts in it which he may not meet with in Aristotle.— Addison. 

It can not be 2 but I am pigeon- \ivered..— Shakespeare. 

RULE II. 

Know that it was he in the times past 

Which 3 held you so under fortune.— Shakespeare. 

'T was he that told me first ; 
An honest man he is, and hates the slime 
That sticks on filthy deeds.— Shakespeare. 

O unblest falsehood! Mother of all evil! 
Thou misery-making demon, it is thou 
That sink'st us in perdition. Simple truth, 
Sustainer of the world, had saved* us all.— Coleridge, 

For three long years I bowed my pride 

A horse-boy in his train to ride; 

And well my folly's meed he gave, 

Who forfeited, to be 6 his slave, 

All 6 here and all beyond the grave.— Scott. 

[Remark 3.] To become a scholar requires application. To be called a phi- 
losopher was the object of all his wishes. He had the misfortune to be born a 
genius. He resigned all these prospects of usefulness to become an attendant 
upon the court. He was very anxious to be chosen leader. 

What is beauty? Not the show 
Of shapely limbs and features! No! 
'Tis the stainless soul within 
That outshines the fairest skin. 
[ Remark 4.] I took the lady in the black dress to be her that owned the house. 

Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, 

In rayless majesty now stretches forth 

Her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world. 

Silence how deep, and darkness how profound !— Young. 

RULE III. 
The foe! they come, they come! 
Hail, thou goddess sage and holyl 
Hail, divinest Melancholy !— Milton. 

My mother! when I learned that thou wast dead, 
Say, Avast thou conscious of the tears I shed? 
Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son, 
Wretch 7 even then, life's journey just begun.— Couper. 

i See p. 233, Rem. 8. * It can not be [any thing] but. I am pipeon-livered be out. 
3 Which was formerly applied to persons. 4 See p. 77, Rem. 11. 

& See p. 221, 7. ° Rule XII, Rem. 3. * Being. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 283 

[ Remark 1.] The war finished, and order restored, the country had time to 
recover from its prostration. 

The passions under control, a man's greatest enemies are subdued. 

Me howling blasts drive devious, tempest-tossed, 

Sails ripped, seams opening wide, and compass lost.— Cowper. 

It was a lovely sight to see 
The lady Christabel when she 
Was praying at the old oak tree, 
Amid the jagged shadows 

Of massy leafless boughs, 
Kneeling in the moonlight 

To make her gentle vows; 
Her slender palms together pressed, 
Heaving sometimes on her breast; 
Her face resigned to bliss or bale— 
Her face, O call it fair, not pale! 
And both blue eyes more bright than clear, 
Each about to have a tear.— Coleridge. 

[Remark 2.] Including that debt, he owes a thousand dollars. Considering 
the circumstances, he was punished too severely. Excepting the house in which 
he lives, he has no property. Admitting that he was intoxicated, does that lessen 
the crime? 

Thy deeds, thy plainness, and thy housekeeping 
Have won the greatest favor of the commons, 
Excepting none but 1 good Duke Humphrey.— Shakespeare. 

It seems to me most strange that men should fear; 

Seeing that death, a necessary end. 

Will come when it will come.— Shakespeare. 

I know no book, always excepting Milton, which at once quickened and ex- 
alted my poetical view of man and his history as that great prose poem, the single 
epic of modern days, Thomas Carlyle's "French Revolution." — Charles Kingsley. 

[Remark 3.] During this discussion the minister was greatly excited. Pend- 
ing the suit the defendant was to retain possession of the property. He left us 
two hours ago. Notwithstanding savage persecution, the number of his followers 
increased. 

None 2 save thou 3 and thine, 4 I 've sworn, 

Shall be left upon the morn. — Byron. 

[Remark 4.] Granted that he is old enough to vote, this is not the place for 
him to vote. Except that he is favored by the president, he has no expectation of 
getting the office. Provided that he accepts these conditions, he is to be admitted. 
Save that it would be illegal, I would certainly do what seems so much to my 
interest. 

It is singular how long the rotten will hold together, provided you do not 
handle it roughly.— Carlyle. 

I take your offer and will live with you, 
Provided that you do no outrages.— Shakespeare. 

1 Rule I, Rem. 6. a See p. 41, Rem. 6. 

8 See p. 126, Rem. 13. * See Rule IV, Rem. 8. 



284 PARSING EXERCISES. 

It was his mishap in the course of his voyage to fall into the hands of the 
English, and he was detained prisoner, 1 notwithstanding that a truce t 
between the two countries.— Irving. 

Indeed I have known a Gascon whose limbs were as eloquent as his tongue : 
he never mentioned the word sleep without reclining his head upon his hand ; 
when he had occasion to talk of a horse he always started and trotted across the 
room, except 2 when he was so situated that he could not stir without incommod- 
ing the company, and in that case he contented himself with neighing aloud.— 
Smollett. 

RULE IV. 
The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed, 
Lets in new light through chinks that Time has made.— Waller. 

At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk was dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 

Should tremble at his power. 
In dreams through camp and court he bore 
The trophies of a conqueror; 

In dreams his song of triumph heard; 
Then wore his monarch's signet-ring; 
Then pressed that monarch's throne- a king; 
As wild his thoughts, and gay of wing, 

As Eden's garden bird.— HaUeck. 

[Rem. 8.] Who steals my purse steals trash; 'tis something, nothing; 

'T was mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands.— Shakespeare. 

[ Remark 10.] I do n't wonder at people's giving him to me for a lover.— Sheri- 
dan. This little delusion was assisted by the circumstance of its being market- 
day. — Dickens. Who gave you knowledge of your wife's being there. — Ben Jonson. 

His discourse was broken off by his man's telling him he had called a coach. 
Upon our going to it, after having cast his eye upon the wheels he asked the coach- 
man if his axletree was good. Upon the fellow's telling him he would warrant it 
the knight turned to me, told me he looked like an honest man, 3 and went in 
without further ceremony.— Addison. 

RULE V. 
A friend called on Michael Angelo, who was finishing a statue; some time 
afterward he called again and found the sculptor still 4 at work. The friend, 
looking at the figure, exclaimed, 5 "You have been idle since I saw you last." 
"By no means," replied 5 the sculptor, "I have retouched this part and polished 
that ; I have softened this feature and brought out this muscle ; I have given more 
expression to this lip and more energy to this limb." "Well, 6 well," said 5 his 
friend, " but all these are trifles." "It maybe so," replied Angelo; "but recol- 
lect 7 that trifles make perfection, and perfection is no trifle."— CoUon. 

[ Remark 1.] Disbanded legions freely might depart, 

And slaying man would cease to be 8 an art. 9 — Cowper. 

1 Rule II. "When he was so situated that ho could not stir without 

incommoding the company except (being excepted). Bee p. i s ">. Rem. l. 

3 Rule V, Rem. 12. "He looked like an honest man," noun-proposition used 
as a noun in the objective case. 

4 See p. 133, Rem. 5. 5 See Rem. 2. 131, Rom. 11. 
7 Rule V, Rem. 2. 8 See p. 220, par. 2. » Rule II, Kem. 3. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 285 

[ Remark 2.] Breadalbane was suspected of intending to cheat both the clans 
and the king. — Macaulay. 

Who can tell when he sets forth to wander whither he may be driven by the 
uncertain currents of existence, or when he may return, or whether it may ever 
be his lot to revisit 1 the scenes of his childhood ?— Irving. 

[Remark 13.] We have been taught 2 that we can not without danger suffer 
any breach of the constitution to be unnoticed.— Macaulay. 

1 had often been told 3 that the rock before me was the haunt of a genius.— 
Addison. 

RULE VI. 

Hence it 1 was that the tragedies of Byron were his least successful perform- 
ances. They resemble tbose pasteboard pictures invented by the friend of chil- 
dren, Mr. Newberry, in which a single movable head goes around twenty different 
bodies; so that 4 the same face looks out upon us successively from the uniform 
of a hussar, the furs of a judge, and the rags of a beggar.— Macaulay. 

One of the greatest arts of escaping superfluous uneasiness is to free our minds 
from the habit of comparing our condition with that of others on whom the bless- 
ings of life are more bountifully bestowed, or with imaginary states of delight and 
security, perhaps unattainable by mortals.— Johnson. 

Let us read with method, and propose to ourselves an end to which all our 
studies may point. Through neglect of this rule gross ignorance often disgraces 
great readers; who by skipping hastily and irregularly from one subject to an- 
other render themselves incapable of combining their ideas. So many detached 
parcels of knowledge can not form a whole. This inconstancy weakens the ener- 
gies of the mind, creates in it a dislike to application, and even robs it of the 
advantages of natural good sense. Yet let us avoid the contrary extreme, and 
respect method without rendering ourselves its slaves. — Gibbon. 

I pity bashful men, who feel the pain 

Of fancied scorn and undeserved disdain, 

And bear the marks upon a blushing face 

Of needless shame and self-imposed disgrace. 

Our sensibilities are so acute, 

The fear of being silent makes us mute.— Cowper. 

[ Remark 4.] Besides that he 's a fool, he 's a great quarreller, and, but 5 that 
he hath the gift of a coward to allay the gust he hath in quarrelling, 't is thought 
among the prudent he would quickly have the gift of a grave.— Shakespeare. 

RULE VII. 

Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 

Lie in three words, health, peace, and competence.— Pope. 

Wenham, the wit and lawyer, Lord Steyne's right-hand man, went about every 
where praising her.— Thackeray. 

1 See p. 150, second and third paragraphs. 

2 The noun-proposition beginning with that would be the direct object if the 
active voice of the verb teach were employed ; it is here construed like grammar in 
" I was taught grammar." Verbs having two objectives in the active voice retain 
one of them in the passive voice. 

3 Compare " They had often told me a tale." 

4 Adverbs, in that manner in which. 5 Rule I, Rems. 2 and 6. 



286 PARSING EXERCISES. 

Dear lovely bowers of innocence and ease, 

Seats of my youth when every sport could please; 

How often have I loitered o'er thy green, 

Where humble happiness endeared each scene! 

How often have I paused on every charm, 

The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm, 

The never-failing brook, the busy mill, 

The decent church that topped the neighboring hill. 

[Remark 4.] All our ecstacies are wounds to peace, 

Peace, the full portion of mankind below.— Young. 

RULE VIII. 

It is related l of the great Dr. Clarke that when in one of his leisure hours he 
was unbending himself with a few friends in the most playful and frolicsome 
manner he observed Beau Nash approaching. He suddenly stopped : " My boys," 
said he, " let us be grave ; here comes a fool."— Eoswell. 

We have no minute information respecting 2 those years of Johnson's life 
during 3 which his character and his manners became immutably fixed.— Lord 
Macaulay. 

Ere long* 
Thick darkness descended the mountains among; 6 
And a vivid, vindictive, and serpentine flash 
Gored the darkness and shore it across with a gash. 
The rain fell in large heavy drops. And anon 
Broke the thunder. The horses took fright, every one. 
The Duke's in a moment was far 6 out of sight. 
The guides whooped. The band was obliged to alight, 7 
And, dispersed up the perilous pathway, walked blind 
To the darkness before from the darkness behind.— Lord Lytton. 

RULE IX. 

Thou hast belied mine innocent child ; 
Thy slander hath gone through and through her heart, 
And she lies buried with her ancestors.— Shakespeare. 

And the storm is abroad in the mountains! He fills 
The crouched hollows and all the oracular hills 
With dread voices of power. A roused million or more 
Of wild echoes reluctantly rise from their hoar 
Immemorial ambush and roll in the wake 
Of the cloud, whose reflection leaves vivid the lake. 
And the wind, that wild robber, for plunder descends 
From invisible lands, o'er those black mountain-ends; 
He howls as he hounds down his prey ; and his lash 
Tears the hair of the timorous wan mountain-ash, 

1 See p. 150, third paragraph. 2 Participle belonging to information. 

3 Participle belonging to which, which during, nominative absolute. 

* See note, p. 134, Rem. 15, and note. The expression, however, might come 
under Rem. 14 (ere a long time). Shakespeare uses long as an adjective belonging 
to it, meaning time : " They will then ere 't be long." 

5 See p. 121, third paragraph. 

6 The adverb Jar modifies the adverb out, and out is modified by the adjunct 
of sight. i See p. 223, second paragraph. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 287 

Which clings to the rocks, with * her garments all torn, 
Like a woman 2 in fear; then he blows his hoarse horn 
And is off, the fierce guide of destruction and terror, 
Up the desolate heights, 'mid an intricate error 
Of mountain and mist.— Lord Lytton. 

[ Remark 10.] Our own heart, and not other men's opinions, forms our true 
honor.— Coleridge. 

Virtue, not rolling suns, the mind matures. — Young. 

RULE X. 

Close on the hounds the hunter came 

To cheer them on the vanished game; 

But, stumbling in the rugged dell, 

The gallant horse exhausted fell. 

The impatient rider strove in vain 

To rouse him with the spur and rein, 

For the good steed, his labors o'er, 

Stretched his stiff limbs to rise 3 no more.— Scott.' 

Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor 
to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider.— Bacon. 

'Tis these that early taint the female soul, 
Instruct the eyes of young coquettes to roll,* 
Teach infant cheeks a bidden blush to know,* 
And little hearts to flutter 4 at a beau.— Pope. 

Meanwhile 
The sun in his setting sent up the last smile 
Of his power, to baffle the storm. And behold! 
O'er the mountains embattled, his armies, all gold, 
Rose and rested; while far 5 up the dim airy crags, 
Its artillery silenced, 6 its banners in rags, 6 
The rear of the tempest its sullen retreat 
Drew off slowly, receding in silence, to meet 
The powers of the night, which, now gathering afar, 
Had already sent forward one bright signal star.— Lord Lytton. 

RULE XI. 

She walks in beauty like the night 7 

Of cloudless climes and starry skies ; 
And all that's best of dark 8 and bright 8 

Meets in her aspect and her eyes : 
Thus mellowed to that tender light 

Which heaven to gaudy day denies.— Byron. 

Wisdom crieth without ; she uttereth her voice in the streets.— English Bible. 

1 See p. 196, Rem. 5. 2 See p. 228, Rem. 2. 3 Adjunct infinitive, 7. Denotes result. 

4 See Rule V, Rem. 12. The verb teach has two objectives, the infinitive here 
being employed as one of the objectives. The verb instruct is used in the sense 
of teach. & See p. 133, Rem. 5. 6 Rule II, Rem. 1. 

^ Rule VI, Rem. 11. e R U i e yill, Rem. 5. 



288 PARSING EXERCISES. 

She had just as good a right to live, if she chose, in St. Martin's Street as 
Queen Charlotte had to live at St. James's.— Macaulay. 

An old lord of the council rated me the other day in the street about you, sir; 
hut I marked him not : and yet he talked very wisely ; but I regarded him not : 
and yet he talked wisely, and in the street too. Thou didst well, for wisdom cries 
out in the streets, and no man regards it.— Shakespeare. 

Arise and go into the street which is called Straight— English Bible. 

RULE XII. 

Our birth is but 1 a sleep and a forgetting; 

The soul that rises with us, our life's star, 
Hath had elsewhere its setting, 
And cometh from afar; 8 
Not in entire forgetfulness, 
And not in utter nakedness, 
But 3 trailing clouds of glory do we come 
From God, who is our home.— Wordsworth. 

[ Remark 3.] Munster, Ulster, and Connaught were ruled by petty sovereigns, 
partly Celts and partly degenerate Normans.— Macatday. 

RULE XIII. 

"Courage!" he said, and pointed toward the land, 
"This mounting wave will roll us shoreward soon." 

In the afternoon they came unto a land 

In which it seemed always afternoon ; 

All round the coast the languid air did swoon, 

Breathing like one that hath a weary dream. 

Full-faced above the valley stood the moon; 

And, like a downward smoke, the slender stream 

Along the cliff to fall and pause and fall did seem.— Tennyson. 

I replied that I had never been at sea, but 4 that I was going.— Marryat. 

RULE XIV. 

O blessed hope, sole boon of man, whereby on his strait prison-walls are 
painted beautiful, far-stretching landscapes. — Carlyle. 

i Is [naught] but a sleep. 2 See page 134, Rem. 15. 

» Rule XII, Rem. 6. * But [I replied] that. 




LIBRARY OF COMCRESS 



~-Jg=d 



"I 



ill III II I | 

003 237 889 4 



Common School Primer. 

Butler's First Book in Spelling and Reading. 
Butler's American Spelmng Book. 
Davis's Word Method, for B 






Butler's Series op Readers— Six Books. 

Butler's Goodrich Series of Readers— Six Boors. 



GRAMMARS 



Butler's Practical Grammar. \ 

Butler's Practical and Critical Grammar. 

butlei.'s introductory grammar, 

M rcii's Child's Grammar— -Illustrated. 



CFIUMISTRY III 



Barker's Chemistry. 

Peckiiam's Elementary. 

Sadtler's Chemical Exferimen atic 



MATHEMATICS 



& 



Towne's Series of Arithmetics— Three Parts; 

TWnk's Ai.oki;i:a. 



C r oninosJlioii and FDociilitm 



» 



Bonnell's Manual of Composition — Two Parts. 
Bronson's Manual of Elocm tiob. 

Huntoon's American Speaker. 

Kavanai oiis Original Drama* 




tiY* 




ZJ 



